AMT Atmospheric Measurement Techniques AMT Atmos. Meas. Tech. 1867-8548 Copernicus Publications Göttingen, Germany 10.5194/amt-6-1287-2013 A 4-D climatology (1979–2009) of the monthly tropospheric aerosol optical depth distribution over the Mediterranean region from a comparative evaluation and blending of remote sensing and model products Nabat P. 1 Somot S. 1 Mallet M. 2 Chiapello I. 3 Morcrette J. J. 4 Solmon F. 5 Szopa S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8641-1737 6 Dulac F. 6 Collins W. 7 Ghan S. 8 Horowitz L. W. 9 Lamarque J. F. 10 Lee Y. H. 11 Naik V. 12 Nagashima T. 13 Shindell D. 11 Skeie R. 14 Météo-France, UMR3589, CNRS – CNRM-GAME, Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques, 42 avenue G. Coriolis, 31057 Toulouse cedex 1, France Laboratoire d'Aérologie, UMR 5560, 16 avenue Édouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France Laboratoire d'Optique Atmospérique, CNRS/Université Lille 1, UMR 8518, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Reading, UK The Abdus Salam International Center for Theroretical Physics, Strada Costiera 11, 34100 Trieste, Italy Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, LSCE-IPSL, CEA-CNRS-UVSQ, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, UK Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ, USA NCAR Earth System Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia Earth Institute, New York, NY, USA UCAR/NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ, USA National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, Japan Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo (CICERO), Oslo, Norway 17 05 2013 6 5 1287 1314 Copyright: © 2013 P. Nabat et al. 2013 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ This article is available from https://amt.copernicus.org/articles/6/1287/2013/amt-6-1287-2013.html The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://amt.copernicus.org/articles/6/1287/2013/amt-6-1287-2013.pdf

Since the 1980s several spaceborne sensors have been used to retrieve the aerosol optical depth (AOD) over the Mediterranean region. In parallel, AOD climatologies coming from different numerical model simulations are now also available, permitting to distinguish the contribution of several aerosol types to the total AOD. In this work, we perform a comparative analysis of this unique multi-year database in terms of total AOD and of its apportionment by the five main aerosol types (soil dust, sea-salt, sulfate, black and organic carbon). We use 9 different satellite-derived monthly AOD products: NOAA/AVHRR, SeaWiFS (2 products), TERRA/MISR, TERRA/MODIS, AQUA/MODIS, ENVISAT/MERIS, PARASOL/POLDER and MSG/SEVIRI, as well as 3 more historical datasets: NIMBUS7/CZCS, TOMS (onboard NIMBUS7 and Earth-Probe) and METEOSAT/MVIRI. Monthly model datasets include the aerosol climatology from Tegen et al. (1997), the climate-chemistry models LMDz-OR-INCA and RegCM-4, the multi-model mean coming from the ACCMIP exercise, and the reanalyses GEMS and MACC. Ground-based Level-2 AERONET AOD observations from 47 stations around the basin are used here to evaluate the model and satellite data. The sensor MODIS (on AQUA and TERRA) has the best average AOD scores over this region, showing a relevant spatio-temporal variability and highlighting high dust loads over Northern Africa and the sea (spring and summer), and sulfate aerosols over continental Europe (summer). The comparison also shows limitations of certain datasets (especially MERIS and SeaWiFS standard products). Models reproduce the main patterns of the AOD variability over the basin. The MACC reanalysis is the closest to AERONET data, but appears to underestimate dust over Northern Africa, where RegCM-4 is found closer to MODIS thanks to its interactive scheme for dust emissions. The vertical dimension is also investigated using the CALIOP instrument. This study confirms differences of vertical distribution between dust aerosols showing a large vertical spread, and other continental and marine aerosols which are confined in the boundary layer. From this compilation, we propose a 4-D blended product from model and satellite data, consisting in monthly time series of 3-D aerosol distribution at a 50 km horizontal resolution over the Euro-Mediterranean marine and continental region for the 2003–2009 period. The product is based on the total AOD from AQUA/MODIS, apportioned into sulfates, black and organic carbon from the MACC reanalysis, and into dust and sea-salt aerosols from RegCM-4 simulations, which are distributed vertically based on CALIOP climatology. We extend the 2003–2009 reconstruction to the past up to 1979 using the 2003–2009 average and applying the decreasing trend in sulfate aerosols from LMDz-OR-INCA, whose AOD trends over Europe and the Mediterranean are median among the ACCMIP models. Finally optical properties of the different aerosol types in this region are proposed from Mie calculations so that this reconstruction can be included in regional climate models for aerosol radiative forcing and aerosol-climate studies.

 References Amman, C.&nbsp;M., Joos, F., Schimel, D.&nbsp;S., Otto-Bliesner, B.&nbsp;L., and Tomas, R.: Solar influence on climate during the past millemnium: results from transient simulations with the NCAR climate system model, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 104, 3713–3718, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605064103">https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605064103</a>, 2007. Anderson, T.&nbsp;L., Wu, Y., Chu, D.&nbsp;A., Schmid, B., Redemann, J., and Dubovik, O.: Testing the MODIS satellite retrieval of aerosol fine-mode fraction, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18204, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JD005978">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD005978</a>, 2005. Antoine, D. and Morel, A.: A multiple scattering algorithm for atmospheric correction of remotely sensed ocean colour (MERIS instrument): Principle and implementation for atmospheres carrying various aerosols including absorbing ones, Int. J. Remote Sens., 20, 1875–1916, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/014311699212533">https://doi.org/10.1080/014311699212533</a>, 1999. Antoine, D. and Nobileau, D.: Recent increase of Saharan dust transport over the Mediterranean Sea, as revealed from ocean color satellite (SeaWiFS) observations, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12214, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006795">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006795</a>, 2006. Artale, V., Calmanti, S., Carillo, A., Dell'Aquila, A., Herrmann, M., Pisacane, G., Ruti, P. M., Sannino, G., Struglia, M. V., Giorgi, F., Bi, X., Pal, J. S., and Rauscher, S.: An atmosphere-ocean regional climate model for the Mediterranean area: assessment of a present climate simulation, Clim. Dynam., 35, 721–740, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0691-8">https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0691-8</a>, 2010. Barnaba, F. and Gobbi, G. P.: Aerosol seasonal variability over the Mediterranean region and relative impact of maritime, continental and Saharan dust particles over the basin from MODIS data in the year 2001, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2367–2391, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-4-2367-2004">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-4-2367-2004</a>, 2004. Basart, S., Pérez, C., Cuevas, E., Baldasano, J. M., and Gobbi, G. P.: Aerosol characterization in Northern Africa, Northeastern Atlantic, Mediterranean Basin and Middle East from direct-sun AERONET observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8265–8282, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-8265-2009">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-8265-2009</a>, 2009. Bellouin, N., Rae, J., Jones, A., Johnson, C., Haywood, J., and Boucher, O.: Aerosol forcing in the Climate Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) simulations by HadGEM2-ES and the role of ammonium nitrate, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D20206, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016074">https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016074</a>, 2011. Benedetti, A., Morcrette, J.-J., Boucher, O., Dethof, A., Engelen, R.&nbsp;J., Fisher, M., Flentje, H., Huneeus, N., Jones, L., Kaiser, J.&nbsp;W., Kinne, S., Mangold, A., Razinger, M., Simmons, A.&nbsp;J., and Suttie, M.: Aerosol analysis and forecast in the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Integrated Forecast System: 2. Data assimilation, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D13205, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011115">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011115</a>, 2009. Benedetti, A., Kaiser, J.&nbsp;W., and Morcrette, J.-J.: [global climate] aerosols [in "state of the climate in 2010"], B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 92, S65–S67, 2011. Bergamo, A., Tafuro, A. M., Kinne, S., De Tomasi, F., and Perrone, M. R.: Monthly-averaged anthropogenic aerosol direct radiative forcing over the Mediterranean based on AERONET aerosol properties, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 6995–7014, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-6995-2008">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-6995-2008</a>, 2008. Berthier, S., Chazette, P., Couvert, P., Pelon, J., Dulac, F., Thieuleux, F., Moulin, C., and Pain, T.: Desert dust aerosol columnar properties over ocean and continental Africa from Lidar in-Space Technology Experiment (LITE) and Meteosat synergy, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D21202, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006999">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006999</a>, 2006. Bréon, F.-M., Vermeulen, A., and Descloitres, J.: An evaluation of satellite aerosol products against sunphotometers measurements, Remote Sens. Environ., 115, 3102–3111, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.06.017">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.06.017</a>, 2011. Carboni, E., Thomas, G. E., Sayer, A. M., Siddans, R., Poulsen, C. A., Grainger, R. G., Ahn, C., Antoine, D., Bevan, S., Braak, R., Brindley, H., DeSouza-Machado, S., Deuzé, J. L., Diner, D., Ducos, F., Grey, W., Hsu, C., Kalashnikova, O. V., Kahn, R., North, P. R. J., Salustro, C., Smith, A., Tanré, D., Torres, O., and Veihelmann, B.: Intercomparison of desert dust optical depth from satellite measurements, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 5, 1973–2002, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-1973-2012">https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-1973-2012</a>, 2012. Chazette, P., David, C., Lefrère, J., Godin, S., Pelon, J., and Mégie, G.: Comparative lidar study of the optical, geometrical, and dynamical properties of stratospheric post-volcanic aerosols, following the eruptions of El Chichon and Mount Pinatubo, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 23195–23207, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95JD02268">https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD02268</a>, 1995. Chin, M., Jacob, D.&nbsp;J., Gardner, G.&nbsp;M., Foreman-Fowler, M.&nbsp;S., Spiro, P. A., and Savoie, D.&nbsp;L.: A global three-dimensional model of tropospheric sulfate, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 18667–18690, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96JD01221">https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD01221</a>, 1996. Collins, W. J., Bellouin, N., Doutriaux-Boucher, M., Gedney, N., Halloran, P., Hinton, T., Hughes, J., Jones, C. D., Joshi, M., Liddicoat, S., Martin, G., O'Connor, F., Rae, J., Senior, C., Sitch, S., Totterdell, I., Wiltshire, A., and Woodward, S.: Development and evaluation of an Earth-System model – HadGEM2, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 1051–1075, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-4-1051-2011">https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-4-1051-2011</a>, 2011. Dee, D.&nbsp;P., Uppala, S.&nbsp;M., Simmons, A.&nbsp;J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M.&nbsp;A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A. C.&nbsp;M., van&nbsp;de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A.&nbsp;J., Haimbergere, L., Healy, S.&nbsp;B., Hersbach, H., Hólm, E.&nbsp;V., Isaksen, L., Kallberg, P., Köhler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A.&nbsp;P., Monge-Sanzf, B.&nbsp;M., Morcrette, J.-J., Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., de&nbsp;Rosnaya, P., Tavolato, C., Thépaut, J.-N., and Vitart, F.: The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 137, 553–597, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/qj.828">https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828</a>, 2011. Donner, L.&nbsp;J., Wyman, B.&nbsp;L., Hemler, R.&nbsp;S., Horowitz, L.&nbsp;W., Ming, Y., Zhao, M., Golaz, J.-C., Ginoux, P., Lin, S.-J., Schwarzkopf, M.&nbsp;D., Austin, J., Alaka, G., Cooke, W.&nbsp;F., Delworth, T.&nbsp;L., Freidenreich, S.&nbsp;M., Gordon, C.&nbsp;T., Griffies, S.&nbsp;M., Held, I.&nbsp;M., Hurlin, W.&nbsp;J., Klein, S.&nbsp;A., Knutson, T.&nbsp;R., Langenhors, A.&nbsp;R., Lee, H.-C., Lin, Y., Magi, B., Malyshev, S.&nbsp;L., Milly, P.&nbsp;C., Naik, V., Nath, M.&nbsp;J., Pincus, R., Ramaswamy, J. J. P.&nbsp;V., Seman, C.&nbsp;J., Shevliakova, E., Sirutis, J.&nbsp;J., Stern, W.&nbsp;F., Stouffer, R.&nbsp;J., Wilson, R.&nbsp;J., Winton, M., Wittenberg, A., and Zeng, F.: The dynamical core, physical parameterizations, and basic simulation characteristics of the atmospheric component of the GFDL global coupled model CM3, J. Climate, 24, 3484–3519, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2011JCLI3955.1">https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JCLI3955.1</a>, 2011. Dubovik, O., Holben, B.&nbsp;N., Eck, T.&nbsp;F., Smirnov, A., Kaufman, Y.&nbsp;J., King, M.&nbsp;D., Tanré, D., and Slutsker, I.: Variability of absorption and optical properties of key aerosol types observed in worldwide locations, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 590–608, 2002. Dulac, F. and Chazette, P.: Airborne study of a multi-layer aerosol structure in the eastern Mediterranean observed with the airborne polarized lidar ALEX during a STAAARTE campaign (7 June 1997), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1817–1831, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-3-1817-2003">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-3-1817-2003</a>, 2003. Déqué, M. and Somot, S.: Extreme precipitation and high resolution with Aladin, Idöjaras Quaterly Journal of the Hungarian Meteorological Service, 112, 179–190, 2008. Farda, A., Déqué, M., Somot, S., Horanyi, A., Spiridonov, V., and Toth, H.: Model ALADIN as regional climate model for Central and Eastern Europe, Stud. Geophys. Geod., 54, 313–332, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11200-010-0017-7">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11200-010-0017-7</a>, 2010. Gao, X., Pal, J.&nbsp;S., and Giorgi, F.: Projected changes in mean and extreme precipitation over the Mediterranean region from a high resolution double nested RCM simulation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L03706, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024954">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024954</a>, 2006. Gibelin, A.-L. and Déqué, M.: Anthropogenic climate change over the Mediterranean region simulated by a global variable resolution model, Clim. Dynam., 20, 327–339, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-002-0277-1">https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-002-0277-1</a>, 2003. Giorgi, F. and Lionello, P.: Climate change projections for the Mediterranean region, Global Planet. Change, 63, 90–104, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.09.005">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.09.005</a>, 2008. Giorgi, F., Coppola, E., Solmon, F., Mariotti, L., Sylla, M.&nbsp;B., Bi, X., Elguindi, N., Diro, G.&nbsp;T., Nair, V., Giuliani, G., Cozzini, S., Guettler, I., O'Brien, T.&nbsp;A., Tawfik, A.&nbsp;B., Shalaby, A., Zakey, A.&nbsp;S., Steiner, A.&nbsp;L., Stordal, F., Sloan, L.&nbsp;C., and Brankovic, C.: RegCM4: model description and preliminary tests over multiple CORDEX domains, Clim. Res., 52, 7–29, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/cr01018">https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01018</a>, 2012. Gordon, H.&nbsp;R. and Wang, M.: Retrieval of water-leaving radiance and aerosol optical thickness over the oceans with SeaWiFS: a preliminary algorithm, Appl. Optics, 33, 443–452, 1994. Guieu, C., Dulac, F., Desboeufs, K., Wagener, T., Pulido-Villena, E., Grisoni, J.-M., Louis, F., Ridame, C., Blain, S., Brunet, C., Bon Nguyen, E., Tran, S., Labiadh, M., and Dominici, J.-M.: Large clean mesocosms and simulated dust deposition: a new methodology to investigate responses of marine oligotrophic ecosystems to atmospheric inputs, Biogeosciences, 7, 2765–2784, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-2765-2010">https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-2765-2010</a>, 2010. Hamonou, E., Chazette, P., Balis, D., Dulac, F., Schneider, X., Galani, E., Ancellet, G., and Papayannis, A.: Characterization of the vertical structure of Saharan dust export to the Mediterranean basin, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 22257–22270, 1999. Hatzianastassiou, N., Gkikas, A., Mihalopoulos, N., Torres, O., and Katsoulis, B.&nbsp;D.: Natural versus anthropogenic aerosols in the eastern Mediterranean basin derived from multiyear TOMS and MODIS satellite data, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D24202, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011982">https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011982</a>, 2009. Hauglustaine, D.&nbsp;A., Hourdin, F., Jourdain, L., Filiberti, M.-A., Walters, S., Lamarque, J.-F., and Holland, E.&nbsp;A.: Interactive chemistry in the Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique general circulation model: Description and background tropospheric chemistry evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04314, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003957">https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003957</a>, 2004. Herman, J.&nbsp;R., Bhartia, P.&nbsp;K., Torres, O., Hsu, C., Seftor, C., and Celarier, E.: Global distribution of UV-absorbing aerosols from Nimbus 7/TOMS data, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16911–16922, 1997. Herman, J.&nbsp;R., Celarier, E., and Larko, D.: UV 380 nm reflectivity of the Earth's surface, clouds and aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 5335–5351, 2001. Herman, M., Deuzé, J.-L., Marchand, A., Roger, B., and Lallart, P.: Aerosol remote sensing from POLDER//ADEOS over the ocean: Improved retrieval using a nonspherical particle model, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S02, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004798">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004798</a>, 2005. Herrmann, M., Somot, S., Calmanti, S., Dubois, C., and Sevault, F.: Representation of spatial and temporal variability of daily wind speed and of intense wind events over the Mediterranean Sea using dynamical downscaling: impact of the regional climate model configuration, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1983–2001, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-1983-2011">https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-1983-2011</a>, 2011. Hohenegger, C. and Vidale, P.&nbsp;L.: Sensitivity of the European climate to aerosol forcing as simulated with a regional climate model, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D06201, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005335">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005335</a>, 2005. Holben, B.&nbsp;N., Eck, T.&nbsp;F., Slutsker, I., Tanré, D., Buis, J.&nbsp;P., Setzer, A., Vermote, E., Reagan, J.&nbsp;A., Kaufman, Y., Nakajima, T., Lavenu, F., Jankowiak, I., and Smirnov, A.: AERONET-A Federated Instrument Network and Data Archive for Aerosol Characterization, Remote Sens. Environ., 66, 1–16, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00031-5">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00031-5</a>, 1998. Holben, B.&nbsp;N., Tanré, D., Smirnov, A., Eck, T.&nbsp;F., Slutsker, I., Abuhassan, N., Newcomb, W.&nbsp;W., Schafer, J.&nbsp;S., Chatenet, B., Lavenu, F., Kaufman, Y.&nbsp;J., Castle, J.&nbsp;V., Setzer, A., Markham, B., Clark, D., Frouin, R., Halthore, R., Karneli, A., O'Neill, N.&nbsp;T., Pietras, C., Pinker, R.&nbsp;T., Voss, K., and Zibordi, G.: An emerging ground-based aerosol climatology: Aerosol optical depth from AERONET, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12067–12097, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001JD900014">https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD900014</a>, 2001. Hourdin, F., Musat, I., Bony, S., Braconnot, P., Codron, F., Dufresne, J.-L., Fairhead, L., Filiberti, M.-A., Friedlingstein, P., Grandpeix, J.-Y., Krinner, G., LeVan, P., Li, Z.-X., and Lott, F.: The LMDZ4 general circulation model: climate performance and sensitivity to parametrized physics with emphasis on tropical convection, Clim. Dynam., 27, 787–813, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-006-0158-0">https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-006-0158-0</a>, 2006. Hovis, W.&nbsp;A., Clark, D.&nbsp;K., Anderson, F., Austin, R.&nbsp;W., Wilson, W.&nbsp;H., Baker, E.&nbsp;T., Ball, D., Gordon, H.&nbsp;R., Mueller, J.&nbsp;L., El-Sayed, S.&nbsp;Z., Sturm, B., Wrigley, R.&nbsp;C., and Yentsch, C.&nbsp;S.: Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner: System description and initial imagery, Science, 210, 60–63, 1980. Hsu, N.&nbsp;C., Tsay, S.-C., King, M., and Herman, J.&nbsp;R.: Aerosol properties over bright-reflecting source regions, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 42, 557–569, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2004.824067">https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2004.824067</a>, 2004. Hsu, N. C., Gautam, R., Sayer, A. M., Bettenhausen, C., Li, C., Jeong, M. J., Tsay, S.-C., and Holben, B. N.: Global and regional trends of aerosol optical depth over land and ocean using SeaWiFS measurements from 1997 to 2010, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 8037–8053, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-8037-2012">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-8037-2012</a>, 2012. Iorio, T.&nbsp;D., di&nbsp;Sarra, A., Sferlazzo, D.&nbsp;M., Cacciani, M., Meloni, D., Monteleone, F., Fua, D., and Fiocco, G.: Seasonal evolution of the tropospheric aerosol vertical profile in the central mediterranean and role of desert dust, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D02201, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010593">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010593</a>, 2009. Jacob, D.: A note to the simulation of the annual and interannual variability of the water budget over the Baltic Sea drainage basin, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 77, 61–73, 2001. Jamet, C., Moulin, C., and Thiria, S.: Monitoring aerosol optical properties over the Mediterranean from SeaWiFS images using a neural network inversion, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L13107, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004GL019951">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL019951</a>, 2004. Kahn, R.&nbsp;A., Gaitley, B.&nbsp;J., Martonchik, J.&nbsp;V., Diner, D.&nbsp;J., Crean, K.&nbsp;A., and Holben, B.: Multiangle imaging spectroradiometer (misr) global aerosol optical depth validation based on 2 years of coincident aerosol robotic network (aeronet) observations, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S04, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004706">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004706</a>, 2005. Kahn, R.&nbsp;A., Gaitley, B.&nbsp;J., Garay, M.&nbsp;J., Diner, D.&nbsp;J., Eck, T.&nbsp;F., Smirnov, A., and Holben, B.&nbsp;N.: Multiangle Imaging SpectroRadiometer global aerosol product assessment by comparison with the Aerosol Robotic Network, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D23209, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014601">https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014601</a>, 2010. Kaiser, J.&nbsp;W., Benedetti, A., and Morcrette, J.-J.: [global climate] aerosols [in "state of the climate in 2009"], B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 91, S45–S47, 2010. Kalivitis, N., Gerasopoulos, E., Vrekoussis, M., Kouvarakis, G., Kubilay, N., Hatzianastassiou, N., Vardavas, I., and Mihalopoulos, N.: Dust transport over the eastern Mediterranean derived from Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, Aerosol Robotic Network, and surface measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D03202, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007510">https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007510</a>, 2007. Kinne, S., Schulz, M., Textor, C., Guibert, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S. E., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T. F., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Collins, W., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Herzog, M., Horowitz, L., Isaksen, I., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kristjansson, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Lesins, G., Liu, X., Lohmann, U., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, O., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X.: An AeroCom initial assessment – optical properties in aerosol component modules of global models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1815–1834, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-1815-2006">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-1815-2006</a>, 2006. Krekov, G.&nbsp;M.: Models of atmospheric aerosols, in: Aerosol Effects on Climate, Univ. of Ariz. Press, Tucson, edited by: Jennings, S. G., 1993. Lamarque, J.-F., Bond, T. C., Eyring, V., Granier, C., Heil, A., Klimont, Z., Lee, D., Liousse, C., Mieville, A., Owen, B., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D., Smith, S. J., Stehfest, E., Van Aardenne, J., Cooper, O. R., Kainuma, M., Mahowald, N., McConnell, J. R., Naik, V., Riahi, K., and van Vuuren, D. P.: Historical (1850–2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7017–7039, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-7017-2010">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-7017-2010</a>, 2010. Lamarque, J.-F., Emmons, L. K., Hess, P. G., Kinnison, D. E., Tilmes, S., Vitt, F., Heald, C. L., Holland, E. A., Lauritzen, P. H., Neu, J., Orlando, J. J., Rasch, P. J., and Tyndall, G. K.: CAM-chem: description and evaluation of interactive atmospheric chemistry in the Community Earth System Model, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 369–411, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-369-2012">https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-369-2012</a>, 2012. Lamarque, J.-F., Shindell, D. T., Josse, B., Young, P. J., Cionni, I., Eyring, V., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Collins, W. J., Doherty, R., Dalsoren, S., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G., Ghan, S. J., Horowitz, L. W., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Plummer, D., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Schulz, M., Skeie, R. B., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Voulgarakis, A., and Zeng, G.: The Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP): overview and description of models, simulations and climate diagnostics, Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 179–206, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-179-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-6-179-2013</a>, 2013. Laurent, B., Marticorena, B., Bergametti, G., Léon, J.&nbsp;F., and Mahowald, N.&nbsp;M.: Modeling mineral dust emission from the Sahara desert using new surface properties and soil database, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14218, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009484">https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009484</a>, 2008. Lee, Y. H. and Adams, P. J.: Evaluation of aerosol distributions in the GISS-TOMAS global aerosol microphysics model with remote sensing observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 2129–2144, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-2129-2010">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-2129-2010</a>, 2010. Lelieveld, J., Berresheim, H., Borrmann, S., Crutzen, P.&nbsp;J., Dentener, F.&nbsp;J., Fischer, H., Feichter, J., Flatau, P.&nbsp;J., Heland, J., Holzinger, R., Korrmann, R., Lawrence, M.&nbsp;G., Levin, Z., Markowicz, K.&nbsp;M., Mihalopoulos, N., Minikin, A., Ramanathan, V., de&nbsp;Reus, M., Roelofs, G.&nbsp;J., Scheeren, H.&nbsp;A., Sciare, J., Schlager, H., Schultz, M., Siegmund, P., Steil, B., Stephanou, E.&nbsp;G., Stier, P., Traub, M., Warneke, C., Williams, J., and Ziereis, H.: Global Air Pollution Crossroads over the Mediterranean, Science, 298, 794–799, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1075457">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1075457</a>, 2002. Levy, R.&nbsp;C., Remer, L.&nbsp;A., Mattoo, S., Vermote, E.&nbsp;F., and Kaufman, Y.&nbsp;J.: Second-generation operational algorithm: Retrieval of aerosol properties over land from inversion of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer spectral reflectance, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D13211, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007811">https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007811</a>, 2007. Levy, R. C., Remer, L. A., Kleidman, R. G., Mattoo, S., Ichoku, C., Kahn, R., and Eck, T. F.: Global evaluation of the Collection 5 MODIS dark-target aerosol products over land, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 10399–10420, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-10399-2010">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-10399-2010</a>, 2010. Liousse, C., Penner, J.&nbsp;E., Chuang, C., Walton, J.&nbsp;J., Eddleman, H., and Cachier, H.: A global three-dimensional model study of carbonaceous aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 19411–19432, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95JD03426">https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD03426</a>, 1996. Liu, X., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Zaveri, R., Rasch, P., Shi, X., Lamarque, J.-F., Gettelman, A., Morrison, H., Vitt, F., Conley, A., Park, S., Neale, R., Hannay, C., Ekman, A. M. L., Hess, P., Mahowald, N., Collins, W., Iacono, M. J., Bretherton, C. S., Flanner, M. G., and Mitchell, D.: Toward a minimal representation of aerosols in climate models: description and evaluation in the Community Atmosphere Model CAM5, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 709–739, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-709-2012">https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-709-2012</a>, 2012. Mallet, M., Roger, J.&nbsp;C., Despiau, S., Dubovik, O., and Putaud, J.&nbsp;P.: Microphysical and optical properties of aerosol particles in urban zone during ESCOMPTE, Atmos. Res., 69, 73–97, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2003.07.001">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2003.07.001</a>, 2003. Mallet, M., Dubovik, O., Nabat, P., Dulac, F., Kahn, R., Sciare, J., Paronis, D., and Léon, J. F.: Absorption properties of Mediterranean aerosols obtained from multi-year ground-based and satellite remote sensing observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 13, 9267–9317, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-13-9267-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/acpd-13-9267-2013</a>, 2013. Mangold, A., Backer, H.&nbsp;D., Paepe, B.&nbsp;D., Dewitte, S., Chiapello, I., Derimian, Y., Kacenelenbogen, M., Léon, J.-F., Huneeus, N., Schulz, M., Ceburnis, D., O'Dowd, C., Flentje, H., Kinne, S., Benedetti, A., Morcrette, J.-J., and Boucher, O.: Aerosol analysis and forecast in the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Integrated Forecast System: 3. Evaluation by means of case studies, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D03302, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014864">https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014864</a>, 2011. Mona, L., Amodeo, A., Pandolfi, M., and Pappalardo, G.: Saharan dust intrusions in the Mediterranean area: Three years of Raman lidar measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D16203, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006569">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006569</a>, 2006. Morcrette, J.-J., Boucher, O., Jones, L., Salmond, D., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A., Benedetti, A., Bonet, A., Kaiser, J.&nbsp;W., Razinger, M., Schulz, M., Serrar, S., Simmons, J., Sofiev, M., Suttie, M., Tompkins, A.&nbsp;M., and Untch, A.: Aerosol analysis and forecast in the european centre for medium-range weather forecasts integrated forecast system: Forward modelling, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D06206, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011235">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011235</a>, 2009. Morcrette, J.-J., Benedetti, A., Jones, L., Kaiser, J., Razinger, M., and Suttie, M.: Prognostic Aerosols in the ECMWF IFS: MACC vs. GEMS Aerosols, Tech. Rep. 659, European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, available at: <a href="http://www.ecmwf.int/publications/library/do/references/list/14">http://www.ecmwf.int/publications/library/do/references/list/14</a>, 2011. Moulin, C., Lambert, C.&nbsp;E., Poitou, J., and Dulac, F.: Long term (1983–1994) calibration of the Meteosat solar (VIS) channel using desert and ocean targets, Int. J. Remote Sens., 17, 1183–1200, 1996. Moulin, C., Guillard, F., Dulac, F., and Lambert, C.&nbsp;E.: Long-term daily monitoring of Saharan dust load over ocean using Meteosat ISCCP-B2 data 1. Methodology and preliminary results for 1983–1994 in the Mediterranean, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16947–16958, 1997{a}. Moulin, C., Lambert, C.&nbsp;E., Dulac, F., and Dayan, U.: Control of atmospheric export of dust from North Africa by the North Atlantic Oscillation, Nature, 387, 691–694, 1997{b}. Moulin, C., Lambert, C. E., Dayan, U., Masson, V., Ramonet, M., Bousquet, P., Legrand, M., Balkanski, Y. J., Guelle, W., Marticorena, B., Bergametti, G., and Dulac, F.: Satellite climatology of African dust transport in the Mediterranean atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 13137–13144, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/98JD00171">https://doi.org/10.1029/98JD00171</a>, 1998. Moulin, C., Gordon, H.&nbsp;R., Banzon, V.&nbsp;F., and Evans, R.&nbsp;H.: Assessment of Saharan dust absorption in the visible from SeaWiFS imagery, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18239–18249, 2001. Myhre, G., Stordal, F., Johnsrud, M., Diner, D. J., Geogdzhayev, I. V., Haywood, J. M., Holben, B. N., Holzer-Popp, T., Ignatov, A., Kahn, R. A., Kaufman, Y. J., Loeb, N., Martonchik, J. V., Mishchenko, M. I., Nalli, N. R., Remer, L. A., Schroedter-Homscheidt, M., Tanré, D., Torres, O., and Wang, M.: Intercomparison of satellite retrieved aerosol optical depth over ocean during the period September 1997 to December 2000, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 1697–1719, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-1697-2005">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-1697-2005</a>, 2005. Nabat, P., Solmon, F., Mallet, M., Kok, J. F., and Somot, S.: Dust emission size distribution impact on aerosol budget and radiative forcing over the Mediterranean region: a regional climate model approach, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 10545–10567, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-10545-2012">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-10545-2012</a>, 2012. Omar, A.&nbsp;H., Winker, D.&nbsp;M., Vaughan, M.&nbsp;A., Hu, Y., Trepte, C.&nbsp;R., Ferrare, R.&nbsp;A., Lee, K.-P., and Hostetler, C.&nbsp;A.: The CALIPSO Automated Aerosol Classification and Lidar Ratio Selection Algorithm, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 26, 1994–2014, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009JTECHA1231.1">https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JTECHA1231.1</a>, 2009. Papadimas, C.&nbsp;D., Hatzianastassiou, N., Mihalopoulos, N., Querol, X., and Vardavas, I.: Spatial and temporal variability in aerosol properties over the Mediterranean basin based on 6-year (2000–2006) MODIS data, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D11205, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009189">https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009189</a>, 2008. Papadimas, C. D., Hatzianastassiou, N., Mihalopoulos, N., Kanakidou, M., Katsoulis, B. D., and Vardavas, I.: Assessment of the MODIS Collections C005 and C004 aerosol optical depth products over the Mediterranean basin, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 2987–2999, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-2987-2009">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-2987-2009</a>, 2009. Pinker, R.&nbsp;T., Zhang, B., and Dutton, E.&nbsp;G.: Do satellites detect trends in surface solar radiation?, Science, 308, 850–854, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1103159">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1103159</a>, 2005. Qian, Y., Giorgi, F., Huang, Y., Chameides, W., and Luo, C.: Regional simulation of anthropogenic sulfur over East Asia and its sensitivity to model parameters, Tellus, 53B, 171–191, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.2001.d01-14.x">https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.2001.d01-14.x</a>, 2001. Randles, C. A., Kinne, S., Myhre, G., Schulz, M., Stier, P., Fischer, J., Doppler, L., Highwood, E., Ryder, C., Harris, B., Huttunen, J., Ma, Y., Pinker, R. T., Mayer, B., Neubauer, D., Hitzenberger, R., Oreopoulos, L., Lee, D., Pitari, G., Di Genova, G., Quaas, J., Rose, F. G., Kato, S., Rumbold, S. T., Vardavas, I., Hatzianastassiou, N., Matsoukas, C., Yu, H., Zhang, F., Zhang, H., and Lu, P.: Intercomparison of shortwave radiative transfer schemes in global aerosol modelling: results from the AeroCom Radiative Transfer Experiment, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2347–2379, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2347-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2347-2013</a>, 2013. Remer, L.&nbsp;A., Kaufman, Y.&nbsp;J., Tanré, D., Mattoo, S., Chu, D.&nbsp;A., Martins, J.&nbsp;V., Li, R.-R., Ichoku, C., Levy, R.&nbsp;C., Kleidman, R.&nbsp;G., Eck, T.&nbsp;F., Vermote, E., and Holben, B.&nbsp;N.: The MODIS Aerosol Algorithm, Products, and Validation, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 947–973, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS3385.1">https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3385.1</a>, 2005. Robock, A.: Volcanic eruptions and climate, Rev. Geophys., 38, 191–219, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1998RG000054">https://doi.org/10.1029/1998RG000054</a>, 2000. Rodá, F., Bellot, J., Avila, A., Escarré, A., Pinol, J., and Terradas, J.: Saharan dust and the atmospheric inputs of elements and alkalinity to mediterranean ecosystems, Water, Air Soil Pollut., 66, 277–288, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00479851">https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00479851</a>, 1993. Rosenfeld, D., Rudich, Y., and Lahav, R.: Desert dust suppressing precipitation: A possible desertification feedback loop, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 98, 5975–5980, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.101122798">https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.101122798</a>, 2001. Ruckstuhl, C., Philipona, R., Behrens, K., Coen, M.&nbsp;C., Dürr, B., Heimo, A., Mätzler, C., Nyeki, S., Ohmura, A., Vuilleumier, L., Weller, M., Wehrli, C., and Zelenka, A.: Aerosol and cloud effects on solar brightening and the recent rapid warming, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L12708, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034228">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034228</a>, 2008. Sanchez, E., Gallardo, C., Gaertner, M.&nbsp;A., Arribas, A., and Castro, M.: Future climate extreme events in the Mediterranean simulated by a regional climate model: a first approach, Global Planet. Change, 44, 163–180, 2004. Santer, R., Carrere, V., Dubuisson, P., and Roger, J.&nbsp;C.: Atmospheric correction over land for MERIS, Int. J. Remote Sens., 20, 1819–1840, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/014311699212506">https://doi.org/10.1080/014311699212506</a>, 1999. Sayer, A.&nbsp;M., Hsu, N.&nbsp;C., Bettenhausen, C., Ahmad, Z., Holben, B.&nbsp;N., Smirnov, A., Thomas, G.&nbsp;E., and Zhang, J.: SeaWiFS Ocean Aerosol Retrieval (SOAR): Algorithm, validation, and comparison with other datasets, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D01173206, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016599">https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016599</a>, 2012. Sciare, J., Oikonomou, K., Favez, O., Liakakou, E., Markaki, Z., Cachier, H., and Mihalopoulos, N.: Long-term measurements of carbonaceous aerosols in the Eastern Mediterranean: evidence of long-range transport of biomass burning, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 5551–5563, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-5551-2008">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-5551-2008</a>, 2008. Shindell, D. T., Lamarque, J.-F., Schulz, M., Flanner, M., Jiao, C., Chin, M., Young, P. J., Lee, Y. H., Rotstayn, L., Mahowald, N., Milly, G., Faluvegi, G., Balkanski, Y., Collins, W. J., Conley, A. J., Dalsoren, S., Easter, R., Ghan, S., Horowitz, L., Liu, X., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Takemura, T., Voulgarakis, A., Yoon, J.-H., and Lo, F.: Radiative forcing in the ACCMIP historical and future climate simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2939–2974, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2939-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2939-2013</a>, 2013{a}. Shindell, D. T., Pechony, O., Voulgarakis, A., Faluvegi, G., Nazarenko, L., Lamarque, J.-F., Bowman, K., Milly, G., Kovari, B., Ruedy, R., and Schmidt, G. A.: Interactive ozone and methane chemistry in GISS-E2 historical and future climate simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2653–2689, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2653-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2653-2013</a>, 2013{b}. Skeie, R. B., Berntsen, T. K., Myhre, G., Tanaka, K., Kvalevåg, M. M., and Hoyle, C. R.: Anthropogenic radiative forcing time series from pre-industrial times until 2010, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 11827–11857, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-11827-2011">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-11827-2011</a>, 2011. Solmon, F., Giorgi, F., and Liousse, C.: Aerosol modelling for regional climate studies: application to anthropogenic particles and evaluation over a European/African domain, Tellus B., 58, 51–72, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2005.00155.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2005.00155.x</a>, 2006. Solmon, F., Mallet, M., Elguindi, N., Giorgi, F., Zakey, A., and Konaré, A.: Dust aerosol impact on regional precipitation over western Africa, mechanisms and sensitivity to absorption properties, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L24705, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035900">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035900</a>, 2008. Somot, S., Sevault, F., Déqué, M., and Crépon, M.: 21st century climate change scenario for the Mediterranean using a coupled atmosphere–ocean regional climate model, Global Planet. Change, 63, 112–126, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.10.003">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.10.003</a>, 2008. Stowe, L.&nbsp;L., Ignato, A.&nbsp;M., and Singh, R.&nbsp;R.: Development, validation, and potential enhancements to the second-generation operational aerosol product at the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16923–16934, 1997. Szopa, S., Balkanski, Y., Schulz, M., Bekki, S., Cugnet, D., Fortems-Cheiney, A., Turquety, S., Cozic, A., Déandreis, C., Hauglustaine, D., Idelkadi, A., Lathière, J., Lefevre, F., Marchand, M., Vuolo, R., Yan, N., and Dufresne, J.-L.: Aerosol and ozone changes as forcing for climate evolution between 1850 and 2100, Climate dynamics, 40, 2223–2250, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-012-1408-y, 2013. Tanré, D., Geleyn, J.-F., and Slingo, J. M.: First results of the introduction of an advanced aerosol-radiation interaction in the ECMWF low resolution global model, in: Aerosols and Their Climate Effects, edited by: Gerber, H. E. and Deepak, A., A. Deepak, 133–147, 1984. Tanré, D., Kaufman, Y.&nbsp;J., Herman, M., and Mattoo, S.: Remote sensing of aerosol properties over oceans using the MODIS/EOS spectral radiances, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 16971–16988, 1997. Tanré, D., Bréon, F.&nbsp;M., Deuzé, J.&nbsp;L., Herman, M., Goloub, P., Nadal, F., and Marchand, A.: Global observation of anthropogenic aerosols from satellite, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 4555–4558, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013036">https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013036</a>, 2001. Tanré, D., Bréon, F. M., Deuzé, J. L., Dubovik, O., Ducos, F., François, P., Goloub, P., Herman, M., Lifermann, A., and Waquet, F.: Remote sensing of aerosols by using polarized, directional and spectral measurements within the A-Train: the PARASOL mission, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 1383–1395, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-1383-2011">https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-1383-2011</a>, 2011. Taylor, K.&nbsp;E.: Summarizing multiple aspects of model performance in a single diagram, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 7183–7192, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900719">https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900719</a>, 2001. Tegen, I. and Fung, I.: Contribution to the atmospheric mineral aerosol load from land surface modification, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 18707–18726, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95JD02051">https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD02051</a>, 1995. Tegen, I., Hollrig, P., Chin, M., Fung, I., Jacob, D., and Penner, J.: Contribution of different aerosol species to the global aerosol extinction optical thickness: Estimates from model results, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 23895–23915, 1997. Textor, C., Schulz, M., Guibert, S., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Feichter, H., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Horowitz, L., Huang, P., Isaksen, I., Iversen, I., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Kristjansson, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Liu, X., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X.: Analysis and quantification of the diversities of aerosol life cycles within AeroCom, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1777–1813, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-1777-2006">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-1777-2006</a>, 2006. Thieuleux, F., Moulin, C., Bréon, F. M., Maignan, F., Poitou, J., and Tanré, D.: Remote sensing of aerosols over the oceans using MSG/SEVIRI imagery, Ann. Geophys., 23, 3561–3568, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/angeo-23-3561-2005">https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-23-3561-2005</a>, 2005. Thomson, A.&nbsp;M., Calvin, K.&nbsp;V., Smith, S.&nbsp;J., Kyle, G.&nbsp;P., Volke, A., Patel, P., Delgado-Arias, S., Bond-Lamberty, B., Wise, M.&nbsp;A., Clarke, L.&nbsp;E., and Edmonds, J.&nbsp;A.: RCP4.5: a pathway for stabilization of radiative forcing by 2100, Clim. Change, 109, 77–94, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0151-4">https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0151-4</a>, 2011. Tompkins, A.&nbsp;M., Cardinali, C., Morcrette, J.-J., and Rodwell, M.: Influence of aerosol climatology on forecasts of the African Easterly Jet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L10801, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004GL022189">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL022189</a>, 2005. Torres, O., Bhartia, P., Herman, J., Sinyuk, A., and Holben, B.: A Long-Term Record of Aerosol Optical Depth from TOMS Observations and Comparison to AERONET Measurements, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 398–413, 2002. Vaughan, M., Young, S., Winker, D., Powell, K., Omar, A., Liu, Z., Hu, Y., and Hostetler, C.: Fully automated analysis of space-based lidar data: an overview of the CALIPSO retrieval algorithms and data products, Proc. SPIE, 5575, 16–30, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.572024">https://doi.org/10.1117/12.572024</a>, 2004. Vautard, R., Yiou, P., and van Oldenborgh, G.&nbsp;J.: Decline of fog, mist and haze in Europe over the past 30 years, Nat. Geosci., 2, 115–119, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo414">https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo414</a>, 2009. Vidot, J., Santer, R., and Aznay, O.: Evaluation of the MERIS aerosol product over land with AERONET, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 7603–7617, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-7603-2008">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-7603-2008</a>, 2008. Wang, H., Shi, G., Li, S., Li, W., Wang, B., and Huang, Y.: The impacts of optical properties on radiative forcing due to dust aerosol, Adv. Atmos. Sci., 23, 431–441, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00376-006-0431-5">https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-006-0431-5</a>, 2006. Wang, M., Knobelspiesse, K.&nbsp;D., and McClain, C.&nbsp;R.: Study of the Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) aerosol optical property data over ocean in combination with the ocean color products, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10S06, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004950">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004950</a>, 2005. Watanabe, S., Hajima, T., Sudo, K., Nagashima, T., Takemura, T., Okajima, H., Nozawa, T., Kawase, H., Abe, M., Yokohata, T., Ise, T., Sato, H., Kato, E., Takata, K., Emori, S., and Kawamiya, M.: MIROC-ESM 2010: model description and basic results of CMIP5-20c3m experiments, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 845–872, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-4-845-2011">https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-4-845-2011</a>, 2011. Wild, M.: Global dimming and brightening: A review, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D00D16, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011470">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011470</a>, 2009. Winker, D., Vaughan, M., Omar, A., Hu, Y., Powell, K., Liu, Z., Hunt, W.&nbsp;H., and Young, S.&nbsp;A.: Overview of the CALIPSO Mission and CALIOP Data Processing Algorithms, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 26, 2310–2323, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009JTECHA1281.1">https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JTECHA1281.1</a>, 2009. Yu, H., Chin, M., Remer, L.&nbsp;A., Kleidman, R.&nbsp;G., Bellouin, N., Bian, H., and Diehl, T.: Variability of marine aerosol fine-mode fraction and estimates of anthropogenic aerosol component over cloud-free oceans from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), J. Geophys. Res., 114, D10206, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010648">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010648</a>, 2009. Zakey, A. S., Solmon, F., and Giorgi, F.: Implementation and testing of a desert dust module in a regional climate model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4687–4704, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-4687-2006">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-4687-2006</a>, 2006. Zakey, A.&nbsp;S., Giorgi, F., and Bi, X.: Modeling of sea salt in a regional climate model: Fluxes and radiative forcing, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14221, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009209">https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009209</a>, 2008. Zubler, E.&nbsp;M., Folini, D., Lohmann, U., Lüthi, D., Muhlbauer, A., Pousse-Nottelmann, S., Schär, C., and Wild, M.: Implementation and evaluation of aerosol and cloud microphysics in a regional climate model, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D02211, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014572">https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014572</a>, 2011{a}. Zubler, E.&nbsp;M., Folini, D., Lohmann, U., Lüthi, D., Schär, C., and Wild, M.: Simulation of dimming and brightening in europe from 1958 to 2001 using a regional climate model, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D18205, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015396">https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015396</a>, 2011{b}. Zubler, E.&nbsp;M., Lohmann, U., Lüthi, D., and Schär, C.: Intercomparison of aerosol climatologies for use in a regional climate model over Europe, Geophys. Res. Lett., 116, L15705, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011GL048081">https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL048081</a>, 2011{c}.