Articles | Volume 19, issue 5
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1629-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1629-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
04 Mar 2026
Research article |
| 04 Mar 2026
| 04 Mar 2026
Vertical distribution of heat and sodium fluxes in the mesopause region measured by sodium lidar over Hainan, China (109° E, 19° N)
Xingjin Wang
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Hefei National Laboratory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Xin Fang
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Hefei National Laboratory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Wenhao Gao
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
deceased, 9 September 2024
Xianhang Chen
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Tai Liu
Department of Geophysics, College of the Geology Engineering and Geomatics, Chang'an University, Xi'an, 710054, China
Chengyun Yang
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Tingdi Chen
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Hefei National Laboratory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Xianghui Xue
National Key Laboratory of Deep Space Exploration/School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Hefei National Laboratory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology/CAS Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment/Mengcheng National Geophysical Observatory, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
Related authors
Shican Qiu, Ning Wang, Willie Soon, Gaopeng Lu, Mingjiao Jia, Xingjin Wang, Xianghui Xue, Tao Li, and Xiankang Dou
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 11927–11940, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11927-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11927-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Our results suggest that lightning strokes would probably influence the ionosphere and thus give rise to the occurrence of a sporadic sodium layer (NaS), with the overturning of the electric field playing an important role. Model simulation results show that the calculated first-order rate coefficient could explain the efficient recombination of Na+→Na in this NaS case study. A conjunction between the lower and upper atmospheres could be established by these inter-connected phenomena.
Chao Ban, Xin Fang, Wen Yi, Jie Zeng, Gunter Stober, Weilin Pan, Tao Li, and Xianghui Xue
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 19, 1697–1709, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1697-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1697-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents an intercomparison of zonal winds observed by a sodium fluorescence lidar and three types of meteor radars – a multistatic meteor radar, a conventional monostatic radar, and a forward remote receiver – located near Hefei, China. The multistatic meteor radar shows the best agreement with the lidar measurements, confirming the reliability of its wind retrievals in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere and highlighting its potential for future atmospheric dynamics studies.
Chengyun Yang, Xiang Guo, Tao Li, Xinyue Wang, Jun Zhang, Xin Fang, and Xianghui Xue
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 26, 1021–1039, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-26-1021-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-26-1021-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
The Indian Ocean strongly influences weather and climate far beyond its region. We found that unusual sea surface warming patterns in the midlatitude Indian Ocean can disrupt winds and temperatures in the middle atmosphere, including the stratosphere and mesosphere, of the Southern Hemisphere. These disturbances alter ozone and air movement and may affect polar climate. Our results highlight the need to include Indian Ocean variability in climate models for better predictions.
Jianyuan Wang, Na Li, Wen Yi, Xianghui Xue, Iain M. Reid, Jianfei Wu, Hailun Ye, Jian Li, Zonghua Ding, Jinsong Chen, Guozhu Li, Yaoyu Tian, Boyuan Chang, Jiajing Wu, and Lei Zhao
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 13299–13315, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-13299-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-13299-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present the impact of quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) disruption events on diurnal tides over the low- and mid-latitude MLT region observed by a meteor radar chain. By using a global atmospheric model and reanalysis data, it is found that the stratospheric QBO winds can affect the mesospheric diurnal tides by modulating the subtropical ozone variability in the upper stratosphere and the interaction between tides and gravity waves in the mesosphere.
Jianfei Wu, Wuhu Feng, Xianghui Xue, Daniel Robert Marsh, and John Maurice Campbell Plane
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 12133–12141, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-12133-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-12133-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Metal layers occur in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere region 80–120 km from the ablation of cosmic dust. Nonmigrating diurnal tides are persistent global oscillations. We investigate nonmigrating diurnal tidal variations in metal layers using satellite observations and global climate model simulations; these have not been studied previously due to the limitations of measurements. The nonmigrating diurnal tides in temperature are strongly linked to the corresponding change in metal layers.
Penghao Tian, Bingkun Yu, Hailun Ye, Xianghui Xue, Jianfei Wu, and Tingdi Chen
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 13413–13431, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13413-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-13413-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Modeling and prediction of ionospheric irregularities is an important topic in upper-atmospheric and upper-ionospheric physics. We proposed an artificial intelligence model to reconstruct the E-region ionospheric irregularities and first developed an open-source application for the community. The model reveals complex relationships between ionospheric irregularities and external driving factors. The findings suggest that spatiotemporal information plays an important role in the reconstruction.
Xin Fang, Feng Li, Lei-lei Sun, and Tao Li
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 2263–2272, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2263-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2263-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We successfully developed the first pseudorandom modulation continuous-wave narrowband sodium lidar (PMCW-NSL) system for simultaneous measurements of the mesopause region's temperature and wind. Based on the innovative decoded technique and algorithm for CW lidar, both the main and residual lights modulated by M-code are used and directed to the atmosphere in the vertical and eastward directions, tilted 20° from the zenith. The PMCW-NSL system can applied to airborne and space-borne purposes.
Wen Yi, Jie Zeng, Xianghui Xue, Iain Reid, Wei Zhong, Jianfei Wu, Tingdi Chen, and Xiankang Dou
Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2022-254, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2022-254, 2022
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
In recent years, the concept of multistatic meteor radar systems has attracted the attention of the atmospheric radar community, focusing on the MLT region. In this study, we apply a multistatic meteor radar system consisting of a monostatic meteor radar in Mengcheng (33.36° N, 116.49° E) and a remote receiver in Changfeng (31.98° N, 117.22° E) to estimate the two-dimensional horizontal wind field, and the horizontal divergence and relative vorticity of the wind field.
Bingkun Yu, Xianghui Xue, Christopher J. Scott, Mingjiao Jia, Wuhu Feng, John M. C. Plane, Daniel R. Marsh, Jonas Hedin, Jörg Gumbel, and Xiankang Dou
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 11485–11504, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-11485-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-11485-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We present a study on the climatology of the metal sodium layer in the upper atmosphere from the ground-based measurements obtained from a lidar network, the Odin satellite measurements, and a global model of meteoric sodium in the atmosphere. Comprehensively, comparisons show good agreement and some discrepancies between ground-based observations, satellite measurements, and global model simulations.
Yetao Cen, Chengyun Yang, Tao Li, James M. Russell III, and Xiankang Dou
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 7861–7874, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-7861-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-7861-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The MLT DW1 amplitude is suppressed during El Niño winters in both satellite observation and SD-WACCM simulations. The suppressed Hough mode (1, 1) in the tropopause region propagates vertically to the MLT region, leading to decreased DW1 amplitude. The latitudinal zonal wind shear anomalies during El Niño winters would narrow the waveguide and prevent the vertical propagation of DW1. The gravity wave drag excited by ENSO-induced anomalous convection could also modulate the MLT DW1 amplitude.
Shican Qiu, Mengxi Shi, Willie Soon, Mingjiao Jia, Xianghui Xue, Tao Li, Peng Ju, and Xiankang Dou
Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2021-1085, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2021-1085, 2022
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
The solitary wave theory is applied for the first time to study the sporadic sodium layers (NaS). We perform soliton fitting processes on the observed data from the Andes Lidar Observatory, and find out that 24/27 NaS events exhibit similar features to a soliton. Time series of the net anomaly reveal the same variation process to the solution of a five-order KdV equation. Our results suggest the NaS phenomenon would be an appropriate tracer for nonlinear wave studies in the atmosphere.
Jianfei Wu, Wuhu Feng, Han-Li Liu, Xianghui Xue, Daniel Robert Marsh, and John Maurice Campbell Plane
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 15619–15630, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-15619-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-15619-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Metal layers occur in the MLT region (80–120 km) from the ablation of cosmic dust. The latest lidar observations show these metals can reach a height approaching 200 km, which is challenging to explain. We have developed the first global simulation incorporating the full life cycle of metal atoms and ions. The model results compare well with lidar and satellite observations of the seasonal and diurnal variation of the metals and demonstrate the importance of ion mass and ion-neutral coupling.
Shican Qiu, Ning Wang, Willie Soon, Gaopeng Lu, Mingjiao Jia, Xingjin Wang, Xianghui Xue, Tao Li, and Xiankang Dou
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 11927–11940, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11927-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11927-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Our results suggest that lightning strokes would probably influence the ionosphere and thus give rise to the occurrence of a sporadic sodium layer (NaS), with the overturning of the electric field playing an important role. Model simulation results show that the calculated first-order rate coefficient could explain the efficient recombination of Na+→Na in this NaS case study. A conjunction between the lower and upper atmospheres could be established by these inter-connected phenomena.
Wei Zhong, Xianghui Xue, Wen Yi, Iain M. Reid, Tingdi Chen, and Xiankang Dou
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 3973–3988, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-3973-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-3973-2021, 2021
Cited articles
Arnold, K. S. and She, C.: Metal fluorescence lidar (light detection and ranging) and the middle atmosphere, Contemp. Phys., 44, 35–49, https://doi.org/10.1080/00107510302713, 2003.
Chu, X., Gardner, C. S., and Franke, S. J.: Nocturnal thermal structure of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere region at Maui, Hawaii (20.7° N), and Starfire Optical Range, New Mexico (35° N), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004891, 2005.
Chu, X., Gardner, C. S., Li, X., and Lin, C. Y. T.: Vertical transport of sensible heat and meteoric Na by the complete temporal spectrum of gravity waves in the MLT above McMurdo (77.84° S, 166.67° E), Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 127, e2021JD035728, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JD035728, 2022.
Cox, R., Plane, J. M., and Green, J.: A modelling investigation of sudden sodium layers, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 2841–2844, https://doi.org/10.1029/93GL03002, 1993.
Gardner, C. S.: Impact of atmospheric compressibility and Stokes drift on the vertical transport of heat and constituents by gravity waves, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 129, e2023JD040436, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JD040436, 2024.
Gardner, C. S. and Liu, A. Z.: Seasonal variations of the vertical fluxes of heat and horizontal momentum in the mesopause region at Starfire Optical Range, New Mexico, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006179, 2007.
Gardner, C. S. and Liu, A. Z.: Wave-induced transport of atmospheric constituents and its effect on the mesospheric Na layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014140, 2010.
Gardner, C. S., Voelz, D., Philbrick, C., and Sipler, D.: Simultaneous lidar measurements of the sodium layer at the Air Force Geophysics Laboratory and the University of Illinois, J. Geophys. Res.-Space Phys., 91, 12131–12136, https://doi.org/10.1029/JA091iA11p12131, 1986.
Gerding, M., Höffner, J., Lautenbach, J., Rauthe, M., and Lübken, F.-J.: Seasonal variation of nocturnal temperatures between 1 and 105 km altitude at 54° N observed by lidar, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 7465–7482, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-7465-2008, 2008.
Guo, Y. and Liu, A. Z.: Seasonal variation of vertical heat and energy fluxes due to dissipating gravity waves in the mesopause region over the Andes, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 3, e2020JD033825, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033825, 2021.
Huang, W., Chu, X., Gardner, C. S., Carrillo-Sánchez, J. D., Feng, W., Plane, J. M., and Nesvorný, D.: Measurements of the vertical fluxes of atomic Fe and Na at the mesopause: Implications for the velocity of cosmic dust entering the atmosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 169–175, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL062390, 2015.
Kawahara, T. D., Gardner, C. S., and Nomura, A.: Observed temperature structure of the atmosphere above Syowa Station, Antarctica (69° S, 39° E), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003918, 2004.
Li, T., Fang, X., Liu, W., Gu, S.-Y., and Dou, X.: Narrowband sodium lidar for the measurements of mesopause region temperature and wind, Appl. Optics, 51, 5401–5411, https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.51.005401, 2012.
Li, T., Ban, C., Fang, X., Li, J., Wu, Z., Feng, W., Plane, J. M. C., Xiong, J., Marsh, D. R., Mills, M. J., and Dou, X.: Climatology of mesopause region nocturnal temperature, zonal wind and sodium density observed by sodium lidar over Hefei, China (32° N, 117° E), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 11683–11695, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-11683-2018, 2018.
Li, T., Ban, C., Fang, X., Li, F., Cen, Y., Lai, D., Sun, C., Sun, L., Zhang, J., and Xu, C.: Seasonal variation in gravity wave momentum and heat fluxes in the mesopause region observed by sodium lidar, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 127, e2022JD037558, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD037558, 2022.
Liu, A. Z. and Gardner, C. S.: Vertical dynamical transport of mesospheric constituents by dissipating gravity waves, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys., 66, 267–275, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2003.11.002, 2004.
Liu, A. Z. and Gardner, C. S.: Vertical heat and constituent transport in the mesopause region by dissipating gravity waves at Maui, Hawaii (20.7° N), and Starfire Optical Range, New Mexico (35° N), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004965, 2005.
Mertens, C. J., Mlynczak, M. G., López-Puertas, M., Wintersteiner, P. P., Picard, R., Winick, J. R., Gordley, L. L., and Russell III, J. M.: Retrieval of mesospheric and lower thermospheric kinetic temperature from measurements of CO2 15 µm Earth Limb Emission under non-LTE conditions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1391–1394, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GL012189, 2001.
Pan, W. and Gardner, C. S.: Seasonal variations of the atmospheric temperature structure at South Pole, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD003217, 2003.
She, C. and Yu, J.: Simultaneous three-frequency Na lidar measurements of radial wind and temperature in the mesopause region, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 1771–1774, https://doi.org/10.1029/94GL01417, 1994.
She, C., Thiel, S. W., and Krueger, D. A.: Observed episodic warming at 86 and 100 km between 1990 and 1997: Effects of Mount Pinatubo eruption, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 497–500, https://doi.org/10.1029/98GL00178, 1998.
She, C. Y., Yan, Z. A., Gardner, C. S., Krueger, D. A., and Hu, X.: Climatology and seasonal variations of temperatures and gravity wave activities in the mesopause region above Ft. Collins, CO (40.6° N, 105.1° W), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 127, e2021JD036291, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JD036291, 2022.
Sheng, Z., He, Y., Wang, S., Chang, S., Leng, H., Wang, J., Zhang, J., Wang, Y., Zhang, H., Sui, H., Song, Y., Wu, G., Guo, S., Chai, J., Feng, W., and Song, J.: Dynamics, chemistry, and modelling studies in the aviation and aerospace transition zones, The Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xinn.2025.101012, 2025.
States, R. J. and Gardner, C. S.: Thermal structure of the mesopause region (80–105 km) at 40° N latitude. Part I: Seasonal variations, J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 66–77, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2.0.CO;2, 2000.
Vincent, R. and Reid, I.: HF Doppler measurements of mesospheric gravity wave momentum fluxes, J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 1321–1333, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1983)040<1321:HDMOMG>2.0.CO;2, 1983.
Walterscheid, R.: Dynamical cooling induced by dissipating internal gravity waves, Geophys. Res. Lett., 8, 1235–1238, https://doi.org/10.1029/GL008i012p01235, 1981.
Wang, X., Fang, X., Gao, W., Chen, X., Liu, T., Yang, C., Chen, T., Li, T., and Xue, X.: Observation data of a narrow sodium lidar from February 2024 to January 2025, V1, Science Data Bank [data set], https://doi.org/10.57760/sciencedb.27247, 2025.
Weinstock, J.: Heat flux induced by gravity waves, Geophys. Res. Lett., 10, 165–167, https://doi.org/10.1029/GL010i002p00165, 1983.
Wu, Q., Ortland, D., Killeen, T., Roble, R., Hagan, M., Liu, H. L., Solomon, S., Xu, J., Skinner, W., and Niciejewski, R.: Global distribution and interannual variations of mesospheric and lower thermospheric neutral wind diurnal tide: 1. Migrating tide, J. Geophys. Res.-Space Phys., 113, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JA012542, 2008.
Short summary
This paper reports the deployment of the first narrowband sodium lidar in the low-latitude region of China. The lidar observations are compared with satellite measurements and atmospheric models, confirming the scientific credibility of these results. Calculations of vertical gravity wave heat and sodium fluxes are used to investigate the influence of the space environment. This lidar system will provide a new ground-based detection device for studying atmospheric environment above the area.
This paper reports the deployment of the first narrowband sodium lidar in the low-latitude...
