Articles | Volume 19, issue 4
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1587-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1587-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Estimation of vertical profiles of raindrop size distribution and cloud microphysical processes in stratiform rainfall using vertical-pointing X- and VHF-band radars
Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, 4648601, Japan
Taro Shinoda
Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, 4648601, Japan
Haruya Minda
Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, 4648601, Japan
Moeto Kyushima
Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research, Nagoya University, Nagoya, 4648601, Japan
Hiroyuki Hashiguchi
Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Uji, 6110011, Japan
Nozomu Toda
Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 6068501, Japan
Shoichi Shige
Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 6068501, Japan
Related authors
No articles found.
Hubert Luce, Lakshmi Kantha, and Hiroyuki Hashiguchi
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 5091–5101, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5091-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5091-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The potential ability of clear air radars to measure turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) dissipation rate ε in the atmosphere is a major asset of these instruments because of their continuous measurements. In the present work, we successfully tested the relevance of a model relating ε to the width of the Doppler spectrum peak and wind shear for shear-generated turbulence and we provide a physical interpretation of an empirical model in this context.
Hubert Luce, Lakshmi Kantha, Hiroyuki Hashiguchi, Dale Lawrence, Abhiram Doddi, Tyler Mixa, and Masanori Yabuki
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 3561–3580, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-3561-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-3561-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Doppler radars can be used to estimate turbulence kinetic energy dissipation rates in the atmosphere. The performance of various models is evaluated from comparisons between UHF wind profiler and in situ measurements with UAVs. For the first time, we assess a model supposed to be valid for weak stratification or strong shear conditions. This model provides better agreements with in situ measurements than the classical model based on the hypothesis of a stable stratification.
Cited articles
Anagnostou, M. N., Anagnostou, E. N., Vivekanandan, J., and Ogden, F. L.: Comparison of two raindrop size distribution retrieval algorithms for X-band dual polarization observations, J. Hydrometeor, 9, 589–600, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JHM904.1, 2008.
Atlas, D., Srivastava, R. C., and Sekhon, R. S.: Doppler radar characteristics of precipitation at vertical incidence, Rev. Geophys., 11, 1–35, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG011i001p00001, 1973.
Barthes, L. and Mallet, C.: Vertical evolution of raindrop size distribution: Impact on the shape of the DSD, Atmos. Res., 119, 13–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.07.011, 2013.
Bringi, V. N. and Chandrasekar, V.: Polarimetric Doppler weather radar, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511541094, 2001.
Bringi, V. N., Chandrasekar, V., Hubbert, J., Gorgucci, E., Randeu, W. L., and Schoenhuber, M.: Raindrop size distribution in different climatic regimes from disdrometer and dual-polarized radar analysis, J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 354–365, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<0354:RSDIDC>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Bringi, V. N., Williams, C. R., Thurai, M., and May, P. T.: Using dual-polarized radar and dual-frequency profiler for DSD characterization: A case study from Darwin, Australia, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 26, 2107–2122, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JTECHA1258.1, 2009.
Browning, K. A. and Wexler, R.: The determination of kinematic properties of a wind field using Doppler radar, J. Appl. Meteor., 7, 105–113, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1968)007<0105:TDOKPO>2.0.CO;2, 1968.
Chen, J.-P. and Lamb, D.: Simulation of cloud microphysical and chemical processes using a multicomponent framework, Part I: Description of the microphysical model, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2613–2630, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1994)051<2613:SOCMAC>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store: ERA5 hourly data on pressure levels from 1940 to present, Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.bd0915c6, 2023.
Dolan, B., Fuchs, B., Rutledge, S. A., Barnes, E. A., and Thompson, E. J.: Primary modes of global drop size distributions, J. Atmos. Sci., 75, 1453–1476, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-17-0242.1, 2018.
Durden, S. L., Haddad, Z. S., Kitiyakara, A., and Li, F. K.: Effects of nonuniform beam filling on rainfall retrieval for the TRMM Precipitation Radar, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 15, 635–646, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<0635:EONBFO>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Ferrier, B. S.: A double-moment multiple-phase four-class bulk ice scheme, Part I: description, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 249–280, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1994)051<0249:ADMMPF>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Ferrier, B. S., Simpson, J., and Tao, W. K.: Factors responsible for precipitation efficiencies in midlatitude and tropical squall simulations, Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 2100–2125, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1996)124<2100:FRFPEI>2.0.CO;2, 1996.
Fukao, S. and Hamazu, K.: Radar for meteorological and atmospheric observations, Springer Tokyo, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54334-3, 2014.
Fukao, S., Sato, T., Tsuda, T., Kato, S., Wakasugi, K., and Makihira, T.: The MU radar with an active phased array system: 1, Antenna and power amplifiers, Radio Sci., 20, 1155–1168, https://doi.org/10.1029/RS020i006p01155, 1985.
Fukao, S., Sato, T., Tsuda, T., Yamamoto, M., Yamanaka, M. D., and Kato, S.: MU radar: New capabilities and system calibrations, Radio Sci., 25, 477–485, https://doi.org/10.1029/RS025i004p00477, 1990.
Godo, H., Naito, M., and Tsuchiya, S.: Improvement of the observation accuracy of X-band dual polarimetric radar by expansion of the condition to use KDP-R relationship, J. Japan Soc. Civ. Eng., Ser. B1, 70, 505–510, https://doi.org/10.2208/jscejhe.70.I_505, 2014.
Gossard, E. E.: Measuring drop-size distributions in clouds with a clear-air-sensing Doppler radar, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 5, 640–649, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1988)005<0640:MDSDIC>2.0.CO;2, 1988.
Gossard, E. E. and Strauch, R. G.: Radar observations of clear air and clouds, Elsevier, ISBN-10: 0444421823, ISBN-13: 978-0444421821, 1983.
Goto, Y., Shinoda, T., Minda, H., Kyushima, M., Baba, K., Minami, Y., Takahashi, N., and Tsuboki, K.: Estimation of size differences in solid precipitation particles based on GPM/KuPR and ground-based radar observations, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 64, 1967–1985, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-25-0054.1, 2025.
Gunn, K. L. S. and East, T. W. R.: The microwave properties of precipitation particles, Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 80, 522–545, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49708034603, 1954.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., Chiara, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
Kanemaru, K., Iguchi, T., Masaki, T., Yoshida, N., and Kubota, T.: Development of a precipitation climate record from spaceborne precipitation radar data, Part II: Temporal adjustment of the calibration change using the ocean normalized radar cross section, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 41, 921–933, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-23-0151.1, 2024.
Keat, W. J., Westbrook, C. D., and Illingworth, A. J.: High-precision measurements of the copolar correlation coefficient: Non-Gaussian errors and retrieval of the dispersion parameter μ in rainfall, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 55, 1615–1632, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-15-0272.1, 2016.
Kim, D. S., Maki, M., and Lee, D. I.: Retrieval of three-dimensional raindrop size distribution using X-band polarimetric radar data, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 27, 1265–1285, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JTECHA1407.1, 2010.
Kirankumar, N. V. P., Rao, T. N., Radhakrishna, B., and Rao, D. N.: Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution in southwest monsoon season, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 47, 576–590, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAMC1610.1, 2008.
Kumjian, M. R. and Prat, O. P.: The impact of raindrop collisional processes on the polarimetric radar variables, J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 3052–3067, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0357.1, 2014.
Leinonen, J.: High-level interface to T-matrix scattering calculations: Architecture, capabilities and limitations, Opt. Express, 22, 1655–1660, https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.22.001655, 2014.
Lin, Y. L., Farley, R. D., and Orville, H. D.: Bulk parameterization of the snow field in a cloud model, J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 1065–1092, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1983)022<1065:BPOTSF>2.0.CO;2, 1983.
Maesaka, T., Maki, M., Iwanami, K., Tsuchiya, S., Kieda, K., and Hoshi, A.: Operational rainfall estimation by X- band MP radar network in MLIT, Japan, 35th Conf. on Radar Meteorology, Pittsburgh, PA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 142, https://ams.confex.com/ams/35Radar/webprogram/Paper191685.html (last access: 2 March 2026), 2011.
Maki, M., Park, S. G., and Bringi, V. N.: Effect of natural variations in rain drop size distributions on rain rate estimators of 3 cm wavelength polarimetric radar, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 83, 871–893, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.83.871, 2005.
Marshall, J. S. and Palmer, W. M.: The distribution of raindrops with size, J. Meteor., 5, 165–166, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1948)005<0165:TDORWS>2.0.CO;2, 1948.
Matrosov, S. Y.: Characteristic raindrop size retrievals from measurements of differences in vertical Doppler velocities at Ka- and W-band radar frequencies, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 34, 65–71, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-16-0181.1, 2017.
Matrosov, S. Y., Kingsmill, D. E., Martner, B. E., and Ralph, F. M.: The utility of X-band polarimetric radar for quantitative estimates of rainfall parameters, J. Hydrometeor, 6, 248–262, https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM424.1, 2005.
McFarquhar, G. M.: A new representation of collision-induced breakup of raindrops and its implications for the shapes of raindrop size distributions, J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 777–794, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061<0777:ANROCB>2.0.CO;2, 2004.
Misumi, R., Uji, Y., and Maesaka, T.: Modification of raindrop size distribution due to seeder–feeder interactions between stratiform precipitation and shallow convection observed by X-band polarimetric radar and optical disdrometer, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 22, e1034, https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.1034, 2021.
Morotomi, K., Shinoda, T., Shusse, Y., Kouketsu, T., Ohigashi, T., Tsuboki, K., Uyeda, H., and Tamagawa, I.: Maintenance mechanisms of a precipitation band formed along the Ibuki-Suzuka mountains on September 2–3, 2008, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 90, 737–753, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2012-511, 2012.
Murakami, M.: Numerical modeling of dynamical and microphysical evolution of an isolated convective cloud: The 19 July 1981 CCOPE cloud, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 68, 107–128, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.68.2_107, 1990.
Nakamura, K. and Furukawa, K.: Estimation of Doppler velocity degradation due to difference in beam pointing directions, IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett., 20, 3502205, https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2023.3250387, 2023.
Nishii, A., Shinoda, T., and Sassa, K.: Maintenance mechanisms of orographic quasi-stationary convective band formed over the eastern part of Shikoku, Japan, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 103, 279–301, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2025-014, 2025.
Okazaki, M., Oishi, S., Awata, Y., Yanase, T., and Takemi, T.: An analytical representation of raindrop size distribution in a mixed convective and stratiform precipitating system as revealed by field observations, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 24, e1155, https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.1155, 2023.
Pang, S., Ruan, Z., Yang, L., Liu, X., Huo, Z., Li, F., and Ge, R.: Estimating raindrop size distributions and vertical air motions with spectral difference using vertically pointing radar, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 38, 1697–1713, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-20-0188.1, 2021.
Pruppacher, H. R. and Klett, J. D.: Microphysics of clouds and precipitation, 2nd Edition, Kluwer Academic Publishers, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48100-0, 1997.
Rajopadhyaya, D. K., May, P. T., and Vincent, R. A.: A general approach to the retrieval of raindrop size distributions from wind profiler Doppler spectra: Modeling results, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 10, 710–717, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1993)010<0710:AGATTR>2.0.CO;2, 1993.
Rajopadhyaya, D. K., May, P. T., Cifelli, R. C., Avery, S. K., Williams, C. R., Ecklund, W. L., and Gage, K. S.: The effect of vertical air motions on rain rates and median volume diameter determined from combined UHF and VHF wind profiler measurements and comparisons with rain gauge measurements, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 15, 1306–1319, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<1306:TEOVAM>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Rao, T. N., Rao, D. N., and Raghavan, S.: Tropical precipitating systems observed with Indian MST radar, Radio Sci., 34, 1125–1139, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999RS900054, 1999.
Rao, T. N., Kirankumar, N. V. P., Radhakrishna, B., and Rao, D. N.: On the variability of the shape-slope parameter relations of the gamma raindrop size distribution model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L22809, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL028440, 2006.
Rosenfeld, D., Amitai, E., and Wolff, D. B.: Classification of rain regimes by the three-dimensional properties of reflectivity fields, J. Appl. Meteor., 34, 198–211, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1995)034<0198:CORRBT>2.0.CO;2, 1995.
Ryzhkov, A. V. and Zrnic, D. S.: Radar polarimetry for weather observations, Springer Cham, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05093-1, 2019.
Seela, B. K., Janapati, J., Lin, P.-L., Wang, P. K., and Lee, M.-T.: Raindrop size distribution characteristics of summer and winter season rainfall over north Taiwan, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 123, 11602–11624, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD028307, 2018.
Seiki, T. and Nakajima, T.: Aerosol effects of the condensation process on a convective cloud simulation, J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 833–853, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-0195.1, 2014.
Shupe, M. D., Kollias, P., Poellot, M., and Eloranta, E.: On deriving vertical air motions from cloud radar Doppler spectra, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 25, 547–557, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JTECHA1007.1, 2008.
Suh, S. H., Kim, H. J., Lee, D. I., and Kim, T. H.: Geographical characteristics of raindrop size distribution in the southern parts of South Korea, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 60, 157–169, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-20-0102.1, 2021.
Thompson, E. J., Rutledge, S. A., Dolan, B., and Thurai, M.: Drop size distributions and radar observations of convective and stratiform rain over the equatorial Indian and west Pacific Oceans, J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 4091–4125, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0206.1, 2015.
Thurai, M., Huang, G. J., Bringi, V. N., Randeu, W. L., and Schönhuber, M.: Drop shapes, model comparisons, and calculations of polarimetric radar parameters in rain, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 24, 1019–1032, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH2051.1, 2007.
Tokay, A. and Short, D. A.: Evidence from tropical raindrop spectra of the origin of rain from stratiform versus convective clouds, J. Appl. Meteor., 35, 355–371, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1996)035<0355:EFTRSO>2.0.CO;2, 1996.
Tsuboki, K. and Wakahama, G.: Single Doppler radar measurements of a kinematic wind field: VAD analysis based on a least-squares-fitting method, Low Temperature Science, Ser. A, 47, 73–88, https://hdl.handle.net/2115/18566, 1988.
Tsuji, T., Yasunaga, K., and Hamada, A.: Statistical characteristics of drop size distributions in the warm season over the Sea of Japan, SOLA, 20, 255–263, https://doi.org/10.2151/sola.2024-034, 2024.
Ulbrich, C. W.: Natural variations in the analytical form of the raindrop size distribution, J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 1764–1775, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1983)022<1764:NVITAF>2.0.CO;2, 1983.
Unuma, T.: Three-dimensional structure of an equilibrium drop size distribution within a convective system in Japan, SOLA, 20, 47–54, https://doi.org/10.2151/sola.2024-007, 2024.
Wakasugi, K., Mizutani, A., Matsuo, M., Fukao, S., and Kato, S.: A direct method for deriving drop-size distribution and vertical air velocities from VHF Doppler radar spectra, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 3, 623–629, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1986)003<0623:ADMFDD>2.0.CO;2, 1986.
Waterman, P. C.: Symmetry, unitarity, and geometry in electromagnetic scattering. Phys. Rev. D, 3, 825–839, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.3.825, 1971.
Wen, L., Zhao, K., Yang, Z., Chen, H., Huang, H., Chen, G., and Yang, Z.: Microphysics of stratiform and convective precipitation during Meiyu season in Eastern China, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 125, e2020JD032677, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD032677, 2020.
Williams, C. R.: Reflectivity and liquid water content vertical decomposition diagrams to diagnose vertical evolution of raindrop size distributions, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 33, 579–595, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-15-0208.1, 2016.
Williams, C. R., Beauchamp, R. M., and Chandrasekar, V.: Vertical air motions and raindrop size distributions estimated using mean Doppler velocity difference from 3- and 35-GHz vertically pointing radars, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote., 54, 6048–6060, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2016.2580526, 2016.
Xie, X., Evaristo, R., Troemel, S., Saavedra, P., Simmer, C., and Ryzhkov, A.: Radar observation of evaporation and implications for quantitative precipitation and cooling rate estimation, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 33, 1779–1792, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-15-0244.1, 2016.
Yuter, S. E. and Houze Jr., R. A.: Three-dimensional kinematic and microphysical evolution of Florida cumulonimbus, Part II: Frequency distributions of vertical velocity, reflectivity, and differential reflectivity, Mon. Weather Rev., 123, 1941–1963, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<1941:TDKAME>2.0.CO;2, 1995.
Zawadzki, I. and De Agostinho Antonio, M.: Equilibrium raindrop size distributions in tropical rain, J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 3452–3459, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045<3452:ERSDIT>2.0.CO;2, 1988.
Zhu, Z., Kollias, P., and Yang, F.: Particle inertial effects on radar Doppler spectra simulation, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 3727–3737, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-3727-2023, 2023.
Short summary
We combined radar data from two frequencies for a case of stratiform rainfall in Japan to estimate the relationship between raindrop size and number concentration aloft. One of the radars used operates at a frequency close to that of satellite-mounted precipitation radars. However, even for stratiform rainfall expected under calm atmospheric conditions, data corrections are required, suggesting that challenges remain for the application to satellite observations.
We combined radar data from two frequencies for a case of stratiform rainfall in Japan to...