Articles | Volume 18, issue 19
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-4949-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-4949-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Ship-based lidar measurements for validating ASCAT-derived and ERA5 offshore wind profiles
Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems IWES, 27572 Bremerhaven, Germany
ForWind, Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Daniel Hatfield
C2Wind ApS, Vesterballevej 5, 7000 Fredericia, Denmark
Charlotte Bay Hasager
Department of Wind Energy and Systems, Technical University of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
Martin Kühn
ForWind, Institute of Physics, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Küpkersweg 70, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Julia Gottschall
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy Systems IWES, 27572 Bremerhaven, Germany
Faculty of Geosciences, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany
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Hugo Rubio, Martin Kühn, and Julia Gottschall
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2433–2455, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2433-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2433-2022, 2022
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A proper development of offshore wind farms requires the accurate description of atmospheric phenomena like low-level jets. In this study, we evaluate the capabilities and limitations of numerical models to characterize the main jets' properties in the southern Baltic Sea. For this, a comparison against ship-mounted lidar measurements from the NEWA Ferry Lidar Experiment has been implemented, allowing the investigation of the model's capabilities under different temporal and spatial constraints.
Arjun Anantharaman, Jörge Schneemann, Frauke Theuer, Laurent Beaudet, Valentin Bernard, Paul Deglaire, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1849–1867, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1849-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1849-2025, 2025
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The offshore wind farm sector is expanding rapidly, and the interactions between wind farms are important to analyse for both existing and planned wind farms. We developed a new methodology to quantify how much the reductions in wind speed behind a farm can affect the loads on turbines which are tens of kilometres downstream. We find a 2.5 % increase in the turbine loads and discuss how further measurements could add to the design standards of future wind farms.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Vlaho Petrovic, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-143, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-143, 2025
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We developed controllers for the Hybrid-Lambda Rotor, which enables two operating modes below rated power via different tip speed ratios, balancing load reduction and power output. A baseline controller with a model-based wind speed estimator, a load feedback controller and an inflow feed-forward controller were implemented on the MoWiTO 1.8 model turbine and tested in wind tunnel experiments. In depth scaling considerations ensure the transferability of the results to the full-scale model.
Johannes Paulsen, Jörge Schneemann, Gerald Steinfeld, Frauke Theuer, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-118, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-118, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
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While Low-Level Jets (LLJs) have been well-characterized, their impact on offshore wind farms is not well understood. This study uses multi-elevation lidar scans to derive vertical wind profiles up to 350 m and detect LLJs in up to 22.6 % of available measurements. Further, we analyze their effect on power production using operational wind farm data, observing a slightly negative influence and increased power fluctuations during LLJ events.
Daniel Ribnitzky, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 1329–1349, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1329-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-1329-2025, 2025
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In this paper, the Hybrid-Lambda Rotor is scaled to wind tunnel size and validated in wind tunnel experiments. The objectives are to derive a scaling methodology, to investigate the influence of the steep gradients of axial induction along the blade span, and to characterize the near wake. The study reveals complex three-dimensional flow patterns for blade designs with non-uniform loading, and it can offer new inspirations when solving other scaling problems for complex wind turbine systems.
Warren Watson, Gerrit Wolken-Möhlmann, and Julia Gottschall
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-45, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2025-45, 2025
Preprint under review for WES
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Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-188, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-188, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for WES
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Neighbouring wind turbines influence each other, as they leave a complex footprint of reduced wind speed and changed turbulence in the flow, called wake. Modern wind farm control sees the turbines as team players and aims to mitigate the negative effects of such interaction. To do so, the exact flow situation in the wind farm must be known. We show, how to use wind turbines as sensors for waked inflow, test this in the field and compare with independent laser measurements of the flow field.
Farkhondeh (Hanie) Rouholahnejad and Julia Gottschall
Wind Energ. Sci., 10, 143–159, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-143-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-10-143-2025, 2025
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In wind energy, precise wind speed prediction at hub height is vital. Our study in the Dutch North Sea reveals that the on-site-trained random forest model outperforms the global reanalysis data, ERA5, in accuracy and precision. Trained within a 200 km range, the model effectively extends the wind speed vertically but experiences bias. It also outperforms ERA5 corrected with measurements in capturing wind speed variations and fine wind patterns, highlighting its potential for site assessment.
Manuel Alejandro Zúñiga Inestroza, Paul Hulsman, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-171, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-171, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for WES
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Wake effects cause power losses that degrade wind farm efficiency. This paper presents a wind tunnel investigation of dynamic induction control (DIC), a strategy to mitigate wake losses by improving turbine-flow interactions. WindScanner lidar measurements are used to explore the wake development of model turbines in response to DIC. Our results demonstrate consistent benefits and adaptability under realistic inflow conditions, highlighting DIC’s potential to increase wind farm power production.
Frauke Theuer, Janna Kristina Seifert, Jörge Schneemann, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-141, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2024-141, 2024
Preprint under review for WES
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Martin Georg Jonietz Alvarez, Warren Watson, and Julia Gottschall
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 2217–2233, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2217-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-2217-2024, 2024
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Offshore wind measurements are often affected by gaps. We investigated how these gaps affect wind resource assessments and whether filling them reduces their effect. We find that the effect of gaps on the estimated long-term wind resource is lower than expected and that data gap filling does not significantly change the outcome. These results indicate a need to reduce current wind data availability requirements for offshore measurement campaigns.
Anantha Padmanabhan Kidambi Sekar, Paul Hulsman, Marijn Floris van Dooren, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1483–1505, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1483-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1483-2024, 2024
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We present induction zone measurements conducted with two synchronised lidars at a two-turbine wind farm. The induction zone flow was characterised for free, fully waked and partially waked flows. Due to the short turbine spacing, the lidars captured the interaction of the atmospheric boundary layer, induction zone and wake, evidenced by induction asymmetry and induction zone–wake interactions. The measurements will aid the process of further improving existing inflow and wake models.
Marta Bertelè, Paul J. Meyer, Carlo R. Sucameli, Johannes Fricke, Anna Wegner, Julia Gottschall, and Carlo L. Bottasso
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 1419–1429, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1419-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-1419-2024, 2024
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A neural observer is used to estimate shear and veer from the operational data of a large wind turbine equipped with blade load sensors. Comparison with independent measurements from a nearby met mast and profiling lidar demonstrate the ability of the
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Daniel Ribnitzky, Frederik Berger, Vlaho Petrović, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 9, 359–383, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-9-359-2024, 2024
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This paper provides an innovative blade design methodology for offshore wind turbines with very large rotors compared to their rated power, which are tailored for an increased power feed-in at low wind speeds. Rather than designing the blade for a single optimized operational point, we include the application of peak shaving in the design process and introduce a design for two tip speed ratios. We describe how enlargement of the rotor diameter can be realized to improve the value of wind power.
Andreas Rott, Leo Höning, Paul Hulsman, Laura J. Lukassen, Christof Moldenhauer, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1755–1770, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1755-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1755-2023, 2023
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Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, Andreas Rott, Eric Simley, Michael Sinner, Gerald Steinfeld, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 1693–1710, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1693-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-1693-2023, 2023
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Unexpected wind direction changes are undesirable, especially when performing wake steering. This study explores whether the yaw controller can benefit from accessing wind direction information before a change reaches the turbine. Results from two models with different fidelities demonstrate that wake steering can indeed benefit from preview information.
Paul Hulsman, Luis A. Martínez-Tossas, Nicholas Hamilton, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2023-112, 2023
Manuscript not accepted for further review
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This paper presents an approach to analytically estimate the wake deficit within the near-wake region by modifying the curled wake model. This is done by incorporating a new initial condition at the rotor using an azimuth-dependent Gaussian profile, an adjusted turbulence model in the near-wake region and the far-wake region and an iterative process to determine the velocity field, while considering the relation of the pressure gradient and accounting the conservation of mass.
Haichen Zuo and Charlotte Bay Hasager
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 3901–3913, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-3901-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-3901-2023, 2023
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Aeolus is a satellite equipped with a Doppler wind lidar to detect global wind profiles. This study evaluates the impact of Aeolus winds on surface wind forecasts over tropical oceans and high-latitude regions based on the ECMWF observing system experiments. We find that Aeolus can slightly improve surface wind forecasts for the region > 60° N, especially from day 5 onwards. For other study regions, the impact of Aeolus is nearly neutral or limited, which requires further investigation.
Moritz Gräfe, Vasilis Pettas, Julia Gottschall, and Po Wen Cheng
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 925–946, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-925-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-925-2023, 2023
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Inflow wind field measurements from nacelle-based lidar systems offer great potential for different applications including turbine control, load validation and power performance measurements. On floating wind turbines nacelle-based lidar measurements are affected by the dynamic behavior of the floating foundations. Therefore, the effects on lidar wind speed measurements induced by floater dynamics must be well understood. A new model for quantification of these effects is introduced in our work.
Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, Gerald Steinfeld, Paul Hulsman, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 747–770, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-747-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-747-2023, 2023
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The optimal misalignment angles for wake steering are determined using wake models. Although mostly analytical, data-driven models have recently shown promising results. This study validates a previously proposed data-driven model with results from a field experiment using lidar measurements. In a comparison with a state-of-the-art analytical model, it shows systematically more accurate estimates of the available power. Also when using only commonly available input data, it gives good results.
Daniel Hatfield, Charlotte Bay Hasager, and Ioanna Karagali
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 621–637, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-621-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-621-2023, 2023
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Wind observations at heights relevant to the operation of modern offshore wind farms, i.e. 100 m and more, are required to optimize their positioning and layout. Satellite wind retrievals provide observations of the wind field over large spatial areas and extensive time periods, yet their temporal resolution is limited and they are only representative at 10 m height. Machine-learning models are applied to lift these satellite winds to higher heights, directly relevant to wind energy purposes.
Jens Visbech, Tuhfe Göçmen, Charlotte Bay Hasager, Hristo Shkalov, Morten Handberg, and Kristian Pagh Nielsen
Wind Energ. Sci., 8, 173–191, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-173-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-8-173-2023, 2023
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This paper presents a data-driven framework for modeling erosion damage based on real blade inspections and mesoscale weather data. The outcome of the framework is a machine-learning-based model that can predict and/or forecast leading-edge erosion damage based on weather data and user-specified wind turbine characteristics. The model output fits directly into the damage terminology used by the industry and can therefore support site-specific maintenance planning and scheduling of repairs.
Merete Badger, Haichen Zuo, Ásta Hannesdóttir, Abdalmenem Owda, and Charlotte Hasager
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2497–2512, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2497-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2497-2022, 2022
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When wind turbine blades are exposed to strong winds and heavy rainfall, they may be damaged and their efficiency reduced. The problem is most pronounced offshore where turbines are tall and the climate is harsh. Satellites provide global half-hourly rain observations. We use these rain data as input to a model for blade lifetime prediction and find that the satellite-based predictions agree well with predictions based on observations from weather stations on the ground.
Hugo Rubio, Martin Kühn, and Julia Gottschall
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2433–2455, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2433-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2433-2022, 2022
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A proper development of offshore wind farms requires the accurate description of atmospheric phenomena like low-level jets. In this study, we evaluate the capabilities and limitations of numerical models to characterize the main jets' properties in the southern Baltic Sea. For this, a comparison against ship-mounted lidar measurements from the NEWA Ferry Lidar Experiment has been implemented, allowing the investigation of the model's capabilities under different temporal and spatial constraints.
Frauke Theuer, Andreas Rott, Jörge Schneemann, Lueder von Bremen, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 2099–2116, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2099-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-2099-2022, 2022
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Remote-sensing-based approaches have shown potential for minute-scale forecasting and need to be further developed towards an operational use. In this work we extend a lidar-based forecast to an observer-based probabilistic power forecast by combining it with a SCADA-based method. We further aggregate individual turbine power using a copula approach. We found that the observer-based forecast benefits from combining lidar and SCADA data and can outperform persistence for unstable stratification.
Frederik Berger, Lars Neuhaus, David Onnen, Michael Hölling, Gerard Schepers, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1827–1846, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1827-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1827-2022, 2022
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We proof the dynamic inflow effect due to gusts in wind tunnel experiments with MoWiTO 1.8 in the large wind tunnel of ForWind – University of Oldenburg, where we created coherent gusts with an active grid. The effect is isolated in loads and rotor flow by comparison of a quasi-steady and a dynamic case. The observed effect is not caught by common dynamic inflow engineering models. An improvement to the Øye dynamic inflow model is proposed, matching experiment and corresponding FVWM simulations.
Balthazar Arnoldus Maria Sengers, Matthias Zech, Pim Jacobs, Gerald Steinfeld, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 1455–1470, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1455-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-1455-2022, 2022
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Wake steering aims to redirect the wake away from a downstream turbine. This study explores the potential of a data-driven surrogate model whose equations can be interpreted physically. It estimates wake characteristics from measurable input variables by utilizing a simple linear model. The model shows encouraging results in estimating available power in the far wake, with significant improvements over currently used analytical models in conditions where wake steering is deemed most effective.
Haichen Zuo, Charlotte Bay Hasager, Ioanna Karagali, Ad Stoffelen, Gert-Jan Marseille, and Jos de Kloe
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 4107–4124, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4107-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4107-2022, 2022
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The Aeolus satellite was launched in 2018 for global wind profile measurement. After successful operation, the error characteristics of Aeolus wind products have not yet been studied over Australia. To complement earlier validation studies, we evaluated the Aeolus Level-2B11 wind product over Australia with ground-based wind profiling radar measurements and numerical weather prediction model equivalents. The results show that the Aeolus can detect winds with sufficient accuracy over Australia.
Marijn Floris van Dooren, Anantha Padmanabhan Kidambi Sekar, Lars Neuhaus, Torben Mikkelsen, Michael Hölling, and Martin Kühn
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 1355–1372, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1355-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1355-2022, 2022
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The remote sensing technique lidar is widely used for wind speed measurements for both industrial and academic applications. Lidars can measure wind statistics accurately but cannot fully capture turbulent fluctuations in the high-frequency range, since they are partly filtered out. This paper therefore investigates the turbulence spectrum measured by a continuous-wave lidar and analytically models the lidar's measured spectrum with a Lorentzian filter function and a white noise term.
Andreas Rott, Jörge Schneemann, Frauke Theuer, Juan José Trujillo Quintero, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 283–297, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-283-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-283-2022, 2022
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We present three methods that can determine the alignment of a lidar placed on the transition piece of an offshore wind turbine based on measurements with the instrument: a practical implementation of hard targeting for north alignment, a method called sea surface levelling to determine the levelling of the system from water surface measurements, and a model that can determine the dynamic levelling based on the operating status of the wind turbine.
Paul Hulsman, Martin Wosnik, Vlaho Petrović, Michael Hölling, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 7, 237–257, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-237-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-237-2022, 2022
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Due to the possibility of mapping the wake fast at multiple locations with the WindScanner, a thorough understanding of the development of the wake is acquired at different inflow conditions and operational conditions. The lidar velocity data and the energy dissipation rate compared favourably with hot-wire data from previous experiments, lending credibility to the measurement technique and methodology used here. This will aid the process to further improve existing wake models.
Frederik Berger, David Onnen, Gerard Schepers, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 1341–1361, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1341-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-1341-2021, 2021
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Dynamic inflow denotes the unsteady aerodynamic response to fast changes in rotor loading and leads to load overshoots. We performed a pitch step experiment with MoWiTO 1.8 in the large wind tunnel of ForWind – University of Oldenburg. We measured axial and tangential inductions with a recent method with a 2D-LDA system and performed load and wake measurements. These radius-resolved measurements allow for new insights into the dynamic inflow phenomenon.
Janna Kristina Seifert, Martin Kraft, Martin Kühn, and Laura J. Lukassen
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 997–1014, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-997-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-997-2021, 2021
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Fluctuations in the power output of wind turbines are one of the major challenges in the integration and utilisation of wind energy. By analysing the power output fluctuations of wind turbine pairs in an offshore wind farm, we show that their correlation depends on their location within the wind farm and their inflow. The main outcome is that these correlation dependencies can be characterised by statistics of the power output of the wind turbines and sorted by a clustering algorithm.
Jörge Schneemann, Frauke Theuer, Andreas Rott, Martin Dörenkämper, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 521–538, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-521-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-521-2021, 2021
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A wind farm can reduce the wind speed in front of it just by its presence and thus also slightly impact the available power. In our study we investigate this so-called global-blockage effect, measuring the inflow of a large offshore wind farm with a laser-based remote sensing method up to several kilometres in front of the farm. Our results show global blockage under a certain atmospheric condition and operational state of the wind farm; during other conditions it is not visible in our data.
Julia Gottschall and Martin Dörenkämper
Wind Energ. Sci., 6, 505–520, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-505-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-6-505-2021, 2021
Anantha Padmanabhan Kidambi Sekar, Marijn Floris van Dooren, Andreas Rott, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-16, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-2021-16, 2021
Preprint withdrawn
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Turbine-mounted lidars performing inflow scans can be used to optimise wind turbine performance and extend their lifetime. This paper introduces a new method to extract wind inflow information from a turbine-mounted scanning SpinnerLidar based on Proper Orthogonal Decomposition. This method offers a balance between simple reconstruction methods and complicated physics-based solvers. The results show that the model can be used for lidar assisted control, loads validation and turbulence studies.
Frauke Theuer, Marijn Floris van Dooren, Lueder von Bremen, and Martin Kühn
Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 1449–1468, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1449-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-1449-2020, 2020
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Very short-term wind power forecasts are gaining increasing importance with the rising share of renewables in today's energy system. In this work, we developed a methodology to forecast wind power of offshore wind turbines on minute scales utilising long-range single-Doppler lidar measurements. The model was able to outperform persistence during unstable stratification in terms of deterministic and probabilistic scores, while it showed large shortcomings for stable atmospheric conditions.
Martin Dörenkämper, Bjarke T. Olsen, Björn Witha, Andrea N. Hahmann, Neil N. Davis, Jordi Barcons, Yasemin Ezber, Elena García-Bustamante, J. Fidel González-Rouco, Jorge Navarro, Mariano Sastre-Marugán, Tija Sīle, Wilke Trei, Mark Žagar, Jake Badger, Julia Gottschall, Javier Sanz Rodrigo, and Jakob Mann
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 5079–5102, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5079-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5079-2020, 2020
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This is the second of two papers that document the creation of the New European Wind Atlas (NEWA). The paper includes a detailed description of the technical and practical aspects that went into running the mesoscale simulations and the microscale downscaling for generating the climatology. A comprehensive evaluation of each component of the NEWA model chain is presented using observations from a large set of tall masts located all over Europe.
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Short summary
Due to the scarcity of offshore in situ observations, alternative data sources are essential for a reliable understanding of offshore winds. Therefore, this study delves into the world of satellite remote sensing (ASCAT) and numerical models (ERA5), exploring their capabilities and limitations in characterising offshore winds. This investigation evaluates these two datasets against measurements from a floating ship-based lidar, collected during a novel measurement campaign in the Baltic Sea.
Due to the scarcity of offshore in situ observations, alternative data sources are essential for...