Articles | Volume 18, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-93-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-93-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
08 Jan 2025
Research article |
| 08 Jan 2025
| 08 Jan 2025
The ratio of transverse to longitudinal turbulent velocity statistics for aircraft measurements
Institute of Geophysics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
Marie Lothon
Laboratoire d'Aérologie, University of Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
Donald H. Lenschow
National Science Foundation (NSF) National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
Szymon P. Malinowski
Institute of Geophysics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
Related authors
Hans Segura, Xabier Pedruzo-Bagazgoitia, Philipp Weiss, Sebastian K. Müller, Thomas Rackow, Junhong Lee, Edgar Dolores-Tesillos, Imme Benedict, Matthias Aengenheyster, Razvan Aguridan, Gabriele Arduini, Alexander J. Baker, Jiawei Bao, Swantje Bastin, Eulàlia Baulenas, Tobias Becker, Sebastian Beyer, Hendryk Bockelmann, Nils Brüggemann, Lukas Brunner, Suvarchal K. Cheedela, Sushant Das, Jasper Denissen, Ian Dragaud, Piotr Dziekan, Madeleine Ekblom, Jan Frederik Engels, Monika Esch, Richard Forbes, Claudia Frauen, Lilli Freischem, Diego García-Maroto, Philipp Geier, Paul Gierz, Álvaro González-Cervera, Katherine Grayson, Matthew Griffith, Oliver Gutjahr, Helmuth Haak, Ioan Hadade, Kerstin Haslehner, Shabeh ul Hasson, Jan Hegewald, Lukas Kluft, Aleksei Koldunov, Nikolay Koldunov, Tobias Kölling, Shunya Koseki, Sergey Kosukhin, Josh Kousal, Peter Kuma, Arjun U. Kumar, Rumeng Li, Nicolas Maury, Maximilian Meindl, Sebastian Milinski, Kristian Mogensen, Bimochan Niraula, Jakub Nowak, Divya Sri Praturi, Ulrike Proske, Dian Putrasahan, René Redler, David Santuy, Domokos Sármány, Reiner Schnur, Patrick Scholz, Dmitry Sidorenko, Dorian Spät, Birgit Sützl, Daisuke Takasuka, Adrian Tompkins, Alejandro Uribe, Mirco Valentini, Menno Veerman, Aiko Voigt, Sarah Warnau, Fabian Wachsmann, Marta Wacławczyk, Nils Wedi, Karl-Hermann Wieners, Jonathan Wille, Marius Winkler, Yuting Wu, Florian Ziemen, Janos Zimmermann, Frida A.-M. Bender, Dragana Bojovic, Sandrine Bony, Simona Bordoni, Patrice Brehmer, Marcus Dengler, Emanuel Dutra, Saliou Faye, Erich Fischer, Chiel van Heerwaarden, Cathy Hohenegger, Heikki Järvinen, Markus Jochum, Thomas Jung, Johann H. Jungclaus, Noel S. Keenlyside, Daniel Klocke, Heike Konow, Martina Klose, Szymon Malinowski, Olivia Martius, Thorsten Mauritsen, Juan Pedro Mellado, Theresa Mieslinger, Elsa Mohino, Hanna Pawłowska, Karsten Peters-von Gehlen, Abdoulaye Sarré, Pajam Sobhani, Philip Stier, Lauri Tuppi, Pier Luigi Vidale, Irina Sandu, and Bjorn Stevens
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 7735–7761, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-7735-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-7735-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Next Generation of Earth Modeling Systems project (nextGEMS) developed two Earth system models that use horizontal grid spacing of 10 km and finer, giving more fidelity to the representation of local phenomena, globally. In its fourth cycle, nextGEMS simulated the Earth System climate over the 2020–2049 period under the SSP3-7.0 scenario. Here, we provide an overview of nextGEMS, insights into the model development, and the realism of multi-decadal, kilometer-scale simulations.
Jakub L. Nowak, Robert Grosz, Wiebke Frey, Dennis Niedermeier, Jędrzej Mijas, Szymon P. Malinowski, Linda Ort, Silvio Schmalfuß, Frank Stratmann, Jens Voigtländer, and Tadeusz Stacewicz
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 4075–4089, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4075-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4075-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A high-resolution infrared hygrometer (FIRH) was adapted to measure humidity and its rapid fluctuations in turbulence inside a moist-air wind tunnel LACIS-T where two air streams of different temperature and humidity are mixed. The measurement was achieved from outside the tunnel through its glass windows and provided an agreement with a reference dew-point hygrometer placed inside. The characterization of humidity complements previous investigations of velocity and temperature fields.
Moein Mohammadi, Jakub L. Nowak, Guus Bertens, Jan Moláček, Wojciech Kumala, and Szymon P. Malinowski
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 965–985, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-965-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-965-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
To compare two instruments, a VisiSize D30 shadowgraph system and a phase Doppler interferometer (PDI-FPDR), we performed a series of measurements of cloud droplet size and number concentration in orographic clouds. After applying essential modifications and filters to the data, the results from the two instruments showed better agreement in droplet sizing and velocimetry than droplet number concentration or liquid water content. Discrepancies were observed for droplets smaller than 13 µm.
Sandrine Bony, Basile Poujol, Brett McKim, Nicolas Rochetin, Marie Lothon, Julia Windmiller, Nicolas Maury, Clarisse Dufaux, Louis Jaffeux, Patrick Chazette, and Julien Delanoë
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 17331–17362, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-17331-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-17331-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Space photographs of the Earth show that clouds form diverse, common but poorly understood cloud patterns. The analysis of observations gathered from research aircraft over the tropical ocean shows that the merging of thermals and clouds in the first kilometer of the atmosphere plays a key role in controlling the size, depth and spacing of clouds. This reveals a fundamental process through which clouds interact with each other and with their environment.
Louis Jaffeux, Marie Lothon, Fleur Couvreux, Dominique Bouniol, Grégoire Cayez, Lilian Joly, Jérémie Burgalat, Cyrille De Saint Leger, Hubert Bellec, Olivier Henry, Dyaa Chbib, Tetyana Jiang, and Sandrine Bony
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-586, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-586, 2025
Revised manuscript accepted for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
A new dataset from the MAESTRO airborne campaign over the tropical Atlantic near Cabo Verde offers detailed turbulence measurements of temperature, moisture, and wind. The data was processed exploiting exceptional instrumental redundancy to provide best quality turbulence statistics and ensure their reliability. This resource can benefit weather and climate models by providing a clearer picture of how turbulence below clouds influences their formation and organization.
Hans Segura, Xabier Pedruzo-Bagazgoitia, Philipp Weiss, Sebastian K. Müller, Thomas Rackow, Junhong Lee, Edgar Dolores-Tesillos, Imme Benedict, Matthias Aengenheyster, Razvan Aguridan, Gabriele Arduini, Alexander J. Baker, Jiawei Bao, Swantje Bastin, Eulàlia Baulenas, Tobias Becker, Sebastian Beyer, Hendryk Bockelmann, Nils Brüggemann, Lukas Brunner, Suvarchal K. Cheedela, Sushant Das, Jasper Denissen, Ian Dragaud, Piotr Dziekan, Madeleine Ekblom, Jan Frederik Engels, Monika Esch, Richard Forbes, Claudia Frauen, Lilli Freischem, Diego García-Maroto, Philipp Geier, Paul Gierz, Álvaro González-Cervera, Katherine Grayson, Matthew Griffith, Oliver Gutjahr, Helmuth Haak, Ioan Hadade, Kerstin Haslehner, Shabeh ul Hasson, Jan Hegewald, Lukas Kluft, Aleksei Koldunov, Nikolay Koldunov, Tobias Kölling, Shunya Koseki, Sergey Kosukhin, Josh Kousal, Peter Kuma, Arjun U. Kumar, Rumeng Li, Nicolas Maury, Maximilian Meindl, Sebastian Milinski, Kristian Mogensen, Bimochan Niraula, Jakub Nowak, Divya Sri Praturi, Ulrike Proske, Dian Putrasahan, René Redler, David Santuy, Domokos Sármány, Reiner Schnur, Patrick Scholz, Dmitry Sidorenko, Dorian Spät, Birgit Sützl, Daisuke Takasuka, Adrian Tompkins, Alejandro Uribe, Mirco Valentini, Menno Veerman, Aiko Voigt, Sarah Warnau, Fabian Wachsmann, Marta Wacławczyk, Nils Wedi, Karl-Hermann Wieners, Jonathan Wille, Marius Winkler, Yuting Wu, Florian Ziemen, Janos Zimmermann, Frida A.-M. Bender, Dragana Bojovic, Sandrine Bony, Simona Bordoni, Patrice Brehmer, Marcus Dengler, Emanuel Dutra, Saliou Faye, Erich Fischer, Chiel van Heerwaarden, Cathy Hohenegger, Heikki Järvinen, Markus Jochum, Thomas Jung, Johann H. Jungclaus, Noel S. Keenlyside, Daniel Klocke, Heike Konow, Martina Klose, Szymon Malinowski, Olivia Martius, Thorsten Mauritsen, Juan Pedro Mellado, Theresa Mieslinger, Elsa Mohino, Hanna Pawłowska, Karsten Peters-von Gehlen, Abdoulaye Sarré, Pajam Sobhani, Philip Stier, Lauri Tuppi, Pier Luigi Vidale, Irina Sandu, and Bjorn Stevens
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 7735–7761, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-7735-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-7735-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Next Generation of Earth Modeling Systems project (nextGEMS) developed two Earth system models that use horizontal grid spacing of 10 km and finer, giving more fidelity to the representation of local phenomena, globally. In its fourth cycle, nextGEMS simulated the Earth System climate over the 2020–2049 period under the SSP3-7.0 scenario. Here, we provide an overview of nextGEMS, insights into the model development, and the realism of multi-decadal, kilometer-scale simulations.
Jean-Marcel Rivonirina, Thierry Portafaix, Solofoarisoa Rakotoniaina, Béatrice Morel, Chao Tang, Kévin Lamy, Marie Lothon, Tom Toulouse, Olivier Liandrat, Solofo Rakotondraompiana, and Hassan Bencherif
Ann. Geophys., 43, 651–666, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-651-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-651-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The lack of ground observation instruments and the vast ocean coverage make the Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) region difficult to access and poorly studied. For gathering ground-based camera information, satellite measurements have been used with the primary goal of characterizing both sites Saint-Denis of Reunion Island and Antananarivo Madagascar in terms of cloudiness. This study shows the particularity of each site and enhances our understanding of cloud properties, particularly in the SWIO.
Mary Rose Mangan, Jordi Vilà-Guerau de Arellano, Bart J. H. van Stratum, Marie Lothon, Guylaine Canut-Rocafort, and Oscar K. Hartogensis
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 8959–8981, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-8959-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-8959-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Using observations and high-resolution turbulence modeling, we examine the influence of irrigation-driven surface heterogeneity on the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). We use a multi-scale approach for characterizing surface heterogeneity to explore how its influence on the ABL within a grid cell would change with higher-resolution models. We find that the height of the ABL is variable across short distances and that the surface heterogeneity is felt least strongly in the middle of the ABL.
Robert Grosz, Kamal Kant Chandrakar, Raymond A. Shaw, Jesse C. Anderson, Will Cantrell, and Szymon P. Malinowski
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 2619–2638, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2619-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2619-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Our objective was to enhance understanding of thermally driven convection in terms of small-scale variations in the temperature scalar field. We conducted a small-scale study of the temperature field in the Π Chamber using three different temperature differences (10 K, 15 K, and 20 K). Measurements were carried out using a miniaturized UltraFast Thermometer operating at 2 kHz, allowing undisturbed vertical temperature profiling from 8 cm above the floor to 5 cm below the ceiling.
Maurin Zouzoua, Sophie Bastin, Fabienne Lohou, Marie Lothon, Marjolaine Chiriaco, Mathilde Jome, Cécile Mallet, Laurent Barthes, and Guylaine Canut
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 3211–3239, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-3211-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-3211-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study proposes using a statistical model to freeze errors due to differences in environmental forcing when evaluating the surface turbulent heat fluxes from numerical simulations with observations. The statistical model is first built with observations and then applied to the simulated environment to generate possibly observed fluxes. This novel method provides insight into differently evaluating the numerical formulation of turbulent heat fluxes with a long period of observational data.
Marie Lothon, François Gheusi, Fabienne Lohou, Véronique Pont, Serge Soula, Corinne Jambert, Solène Derrien, Yannick Bezombes, Emmanuel Leclerc, Gilles Athier, Antoine Vial, Alban Philibert, Bernard Campistron, Frédérique Saïd, Jeroen Sonke, Julien Amestoy, Erwan Bargain, Pierre Bosser, Damien Boulanger, Guillaume Bret, Renaud Bodichon, Laurent Cabanas, Guylaine Canut, Jean-Bernard Estrampes, Eric Gardrat, Zaida Gomez Kuri, Jérémy Gueffier, Fabienne Guesdon, Morgan Lopez, Olivier Masson, Pierre-Yves Meslin, Yves Meyerfeld, Nicolas Pascal, Eric Pique, Michel Ramonet, Felix Starck, and Romain Vidal
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 6265–6300, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-6265-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-6265-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Pyrenean Platform for Observation of the Atmosphere (P2OA) is a coupled plain–mountain instrumented platform in southwestern France for the monitoring of climate variables and the study of meteorological processes in a mountainous region. A comprehensive description of this platform is presented for the first time: its instrumentation, the associated dataset, and a meteorological characterization the site. The potential of the P2OA is illustrated through several examples of process studies.
Alban Philibert, Marie Lothon, Julien Amestoy, Pierre-Yves Meslin, Solène Derrien, Yannick Bezombes, Bernard Campistron, Fabienne Lohou, Antoine Vial, Guylaine Canut-Rocafort, Joachim Reuder, and Jennifer K. Brooke
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 1679–1701, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-1679-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-1679-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present a new algorithm, CALOTRITON, for the retrieval of the convective boundary layer depth with ultra-high-frequency radar measurements. CALOTRITON is partly based on the principle that the top of the convective boundary layer is associated with an inversion and a decrease in turbulence. It is evaluated using ceilometer and radiosonde data. It is able to qualify the complexity of the vertical structure of the low troposphere and detect internal or residual layers.
Jérémy Gueffier, François Gheusi, Marie Lothon, Véronique Pont, Alban Philibert, Fabienne Lohou, Solène Derrien, Yannick Bezombes, Gilles Athier, Yves Meyerfeld, Antoine Vial, and Emmanuel Leclerc
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 287–316, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-287-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-287-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the link between weather regime and atmospheric composition at a Pyrenean observatory. Five years of meteorological data were synchronized on a daily basis and then, using a clustering method, separated into six groups of observation days, with most showing marked characteristics of different weather regimes (fair and disturbed weather, winter windstorms, foehn). Statistical differences in gas and particle concentrations appeared between the groups and are discussed.
Leonie Villiger, Marina Dütsch, Sandrine Bony, Marie Lothon, Stephan Pfahl, Heini Wernli, Pierre-Etienne Brilouet, Patrick Chazette, Pierre Coutris, Julien Delanoë, Cyrille Flamant, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, Martin Werner, and Franziska Aemisegger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 14643–14672, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14643-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14643-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
This study evaluates three numerical simulations performed with an isotope-enabled weather forecast model and investigates the coupling between shallow trade-wind cumulus clouds and atmospheric circulations on different scales. We show that the simulations reproduce key characteristics of shallow trade-wind clouds as observed during the field experiment EUREC4A and that the spatial distribution of stable-water-vapour isotopes is shaped by the overturning circulation associated with these clouds.
Katarzyna Nurowska, Moein Mohammadi, Szymon Malinowski, and Krzysztof Markowicz
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 2415–2430, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2415-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2415-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we evaluate the low-cost Alphasense OPC-N3 optical particle counter for measurements of fog microphysics. We compare OPC-N3 with the Oxford Lasers VisiSize D30. This work is significant because OPC-N3 can be used with drones for vertical profiles in fog.
Jakub L. Nowak, Robert Grosz, Wiebke Frey, Dennis Niedermeier, Jędrzej Mijas, Szymon P. Malinowski, Linda Ort, Silvio Schmalfuß, Frank Stratmann, Jens Voigtländer, and Tadeusz Stacewicz
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 4075–4089, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4075-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4075-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A high-resolution infrared hygrometer (FIRH) was adapted to measure humidity and its rapid fluctuations in turbulence inside a moist-air wind tunnel LACIS-T where two air streams of different temperature and humidity are mixed. The measurement was achieved from outside the tunnel through its glass windows and provided an agreement with a reference dew-point hygrometer placed inside. The characterization of humidity complements previous investigations of velocity and temperature fields.
Sandrine Bony, Marie Lothon, Julien Delanoë, Pierre Coutris, Jean-Claude Etienne, Franziska Aemisegger, Anna Lea Albright, Thierry André, Hubert Bellec, Alexandre Baron, Jean-François Bourdinot, Pierre-Etienne Brilouet, Aurélien Bourdon, Jean-Christophe Canonici, Christophe Caudoux, Patrick Chazette, Michel Cluzeau, Céline Cornet, Jean-Philippe Desbios, Dominique Duchanoy, Cyrille Flamant, Benjamin Fildier, Christophe Gourbeyre, Laurent Guiraud, Tetyana Jiang, Claude Lainard, Christophe Le Gac, Christian Lendroit, Julien Lernould, Thierry Perrin, Frédéric Pouvesle, Pascal Richard, Nicolas Rochetin, Kevin Salaün, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, Guillaume Seurat, Bjorn Stevens, Julien Totems, Ludovic Touzé-Peiffer, Gilles Vergez, Jessica Vial, Leonie Villiger, and Raphaela Vogel
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 2021–2064, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-2021-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-2021-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The French ATR42 research aircraft participated in the EUREC4A international field campaign that took place in 2020 over the tropical Atlantic, east of Barbados. We present the extensive instrumentation of the aircraft, the research flights and the different measurements. We show that the ATR measurements of humidity, wind, aerosols and cloudiness in the lower atmosphere are robust and consistent with each other. They will make it possible to advance understanding of cloud–climate interactions.
Moein Mohammadi, Jakub L. Nowak, Guus Bertens, Jan Moláček, Wojciech Kumala, and Szymon P. Malinowski
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 965–985, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-965-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-965-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
To compare two instruments, a VisiSize D30 shadowgraph system and a phase Doppler interferometer (PDI-FPDR), we performed a series of measurements of cloud droplet size and number concentration in orographic clouds. After applying essential modifications and filters to the data, the results from the two instruments showed better agreement in droplet sizing and velocimetry than droplet number concentration or liquid water content. Discrepancies were observed for droplets smaller than 13 µm.
Cited articles
Akinlabi, E. O., Wacławczyk, M., Mellado, J. P., and Malinowski, S. P.: Estimating turbulence kinetic energy dissipation rates in the numerically simulated stratocumulus cloud-top mixing layer: Evaluation of different methods, J. Atmos. Sci., 76, 1471–1488, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-18-0146.1, 2019. a, b, c
Albright, A. L., Bony, S., Stevens, B., and Vogel, R.: Observed Subcloud-Layer Moisture and Heat Budgets in the Trades, J. Atmos. Sci., 79, 2363–2385, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-21-0337.1, 2022. a, b
Bony, S., Lothon, M., Delanoë, J., Coutris, P., Etienne, J.-C., Aemisegger, F., Albright, A. L., André, T., Bellec, H., Baron, A., Bourdinot, J.-F., Brilouet, P.-E., Bourdon, A., Canonici, J.-C., Caudoux, C., Chazette, P., Cluzeau, M., Cornet, C., Desbios, J.-P., Duchanoy, D., Flamant, C., Fildier, B., Gourbeyre, C., Guiraud, L., Jiang, T., Lainard, C., Le Gac, C., Lendroit, C., Lernould, J., Perrin, T., Pouvesle, F., Richard, P., Rochetin, N., Salaün, K., Schwarzenboeck, A., Seurat, G., Stevens, B., Totems, J., Touzé-Peiffer, L., Vergez, G., Vial, J., Villiger, L., and Vogel, R.: EUREC4A observations from the SAFIRE ATR42 aircraft, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 2021–2064, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-2021-2022, 2022. a
Brilouet, P.-E., Lothon, M., Etienne, J.-C., Richard, P., Bony, S., Lernoult, J., Bellec, H., Vergez, G., Perrin, T., Delanoë, J., Jiang, T., Pouvesle, F., Lainard, C., Cluzeau, M., Guiraud, L., Medina, P., and Charoy, T.: The EUREC4A turbulence dataset derived from the SAFIRE ATR 42 aircraft, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 3379–3398, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3379-2021, 2021. a, b, c
Brown, E. N., Friehe, C. A., and Lenschow, D. H.: The Use of Pressure Fluctuations on the Nose of an Aircraft for Measuring Air Motion, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 22, 171–180, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1983)022<0171:TUOPFO>2.0.CO;2, 1983. a
Chamecki, M. and Dias, N. L.: The local isotropy hypothesis and the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate in the atmospheric surface layer, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 130, 2733–2752, https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.03.155, 2004. a, b, c, d
Darbieu, C., Lohou, F., Lothon, M., Vilà-Guerau de Arellano, J., Couvreux, F., Durand, P., Pino, D., Patton, E. G., Nilsson, E., Blay-Carreras, E., and Gioli, B.: Turbulence vertical structure of the boundary layer during the afternoon transition, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 10071–10086, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-10071-2015, 2015. a, b, c
Duynkerke, P. G., Zhang, H. Q., and Jonker, P. J.: Microphysical and turbulent structure of nocturnal stratocumulus as observed during ASTEX, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2763–2777, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052<2763:MATSON>2.0.CO;2, 1995. a
Faloona, I., Lenschow, D. H., Campos, T., Stevens, B., van Zanten, M., Blomquist, B., Thornton, D., Bandy, A., and Gerber, H.: Observations of entrainment in eastern Pacific marine stratocumulus using three conserved scalars, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3268–3285, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3541.1, 2005. a
Gerber, H.: POST: Gerber scientific (GSI) 100-hz PVM - netCDF format, Version 1.0, UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory [data set], https://doi.org/10.26023/W2HT-F1E5-C50E, 2009. a, b
Gerber, H., Arends, B. G., and Ackerman, A. S.: New microphysics sensor for aircraft use, Atmos. Res., 31, 235–252, https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(94)90001-9, 1994. a
Gerber, H., Frick, G., Malinowski, S. P., Jonsson, H., Khelif, D., and Krueger, S. K.: Entrainment rates and microphysics in POST stratocumulus, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 12094–12109, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50878, 2013. a, b, c
Gomes-Fernandes, R., Ganapathisubramani, B., and Vassilicos, J. C.: The energy cascade in near-field non-homogeneous non-isotropic turbulence, J. Fluid Mech., 771, 676–705, https://doi.org/10.1017/JFM.2015.201, 2015. a
Grabowski, W. W. and Wang, L.-P.: Growth of Cloud Droplets in a Turbulent Environment, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 45, 293–324, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-fluid-011212-140750, 2013. a
Haugen, D. A., Kaimal, J. C., and Bradley, E. F.: An experimental study of Reynolds stress and heat flux in the atmospheric surface layer, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 97, 168–180, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709741204, 1971. a
Huq, S., De Roo, F., Foken, T., and Mauder, M.: Evaluation of Probe-Induced Flow Distortion of Campbell CSAT3 Sonic Anemometers by Numerical Simulation, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 165, 9–28, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-017-0264-z, 2017. a
Jen-La Plante, I., Ma, Y., Nurowska, K., Gerber, H., Khelif, D., Karpinska, K., Kopec, M. K., Kumala, W., and Malinowski, S. P.: Physics of Stratocumulus Top (POST): turbulence characteristics, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 9711–9725, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-9711-2016, 2016. a, b, c
Kaimal, J. C., Wyngaard, J. C., Haugen, D. A., Coté, O. R., Izumi, Y., Caughey, S. J., and Readings, C. J.: Turbulence Structure in the Convective Boundary Layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2152–2169, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<2152:TSITCB>2.0.CO;2, 1976. a, b
Kaimal, J. C., Eversole, R. A., Lenschow, D. H., Stankov, B. B., Kahn, P. H., and Businger, J. A.: Spectral Characteristics of the Convective Boundary Layer Over Uneven Terrain, J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 1098–1114, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1982)039<1098:SCOTCB>2.0.CO;2, 1982. a, b, c
Kalogiros, J. A. and Wang, Q.: Calibration of a Radome-Differential GPS System on a Twin Otter Research Aircraft for Turbulence Measurements, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 19, 159–171, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2002)019<0159:COARDG>2.0.CO;2, 2002. a
Katul, G., Hsieh, C. I., and Sigmon, J.: Energy-inertial scale interactions for velocity and temperature in the unstable atmospheric surface layer, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 82, 49–80, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1000178707511, 1997. a, b, c
Katul, G. G., Parlange, M. B., Albertson, J. D., and Chu, C. R.: Local isotropy and anisotropy in the sheared and heated atmospheric surface layer, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 72, 123–148, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00712392, 1995. a, b, c, d
Khelif, D.: POST: UC Irvine 40-hz Probes - netCDF format, Version 1.0., UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory [data set], https://doi.org/10.26023/KP56-KFJS-VC07, 2009. a, b
Kolmogorov, A. N.: The local structure of turbulence in incompressible viscous fluid for very large Reynolds numbers, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 30, 301–304, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1991.0075, 1941. a
Lambert, D. and Durand, P.: The marine atmospheric boundary layer during semaphore. I: Mean vertical structure and non-axisymmetry of turbulence, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 125, 495–512, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712555407, 1999. a
Lenschow, D. H.: Model of the Height Variation of the Turbulence Kinetic Energy Budget in the Unstable Planetary Boundary Layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 465–474, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<0465:MOTHVO>2.0.CO;2, 1974. a, b
Lenschow, D. H.: Aircraft Measurements in the Boundary Layer, in: Probing the Atmospheric Boundary Layer, American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA, 39–55, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-944970-14-7_5, ISBN 978-1-944970-14-7, 1986. a, b
Lenschow, D. H., Friehe, C. A., and Larue, J. C.: The development of an airborne hot-wire anemometer system, in: Fourth Symp. on Meteorological Observations and Instrumentation, American Meteorological Society, Denver, 10–14 April 1978, 24, 463–466, 1978. a
Lenschow, D. H., Mann, J., and Kristensen, L.: How long is long enough when measuring fluxes and other turbulence statistics?, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 11, 661–673, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1994)011<0661:HLILEW>2.0.CO;2, 1994. a
Lenschow, D. H., Zhou, M., Zeng, X., Chen, L., and Xu, X.: Measurements of fine-scale structure at the top of marine stratocumulus, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 97, 331–357, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002780019748, 2000. a
Leon, D., Zuidema, P., and Leon, D.: VOCALS: NSF/NCAR C130 Radar, Lidar and Radiometer Integrated Dataset, Version 1.0, UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory [data set], https://doi.org/10.26023/8KEJ-BQNG-W808, 2011. a, b
Lothon, M. and Brilouet, P.: SAFIRE ATR42: Turbulence Data 25 Hz, Aeris [data set], https://doi.org/10.25326/128, 2020. a, b, c
Lothon, M. and Lenschow, D.: Status-reminder report on C-130 air-motion measurements: Test of DYCOMS-II new datasets, Tech. rep., University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, https://archive.eol.ucar.edu/raf/Projects/DYCOMS-II/DYCOMS.report1_win07.pdf (last access: 13 December 2023), 2007. a, b, c
Malinowski, S. P., Gerber, H., Jen-La Plante, I., Kopec, M. K., Kumala, W., Nurowska, K., Chuang, P. Y., Khelif, D., and Haman, K. E.: Physics of Stratocumulus Top (POST): turbulent mixing across capping inversion, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 12171–12186, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-12171-2013, 2013. a, b, c, d
Mauritsen, T., Svensson, G., Zilitinkevich, S. S., Esau, I., Enger, L., and Grisogono, B.: A Total Turbulent Energy Closure Model for Neutrally and Stably Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layers, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 4113–4126, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAS2294.1, 2007. a
Merceret, F. J.: Airborne Hot-Film Measurements of the Small-Scale Structure of Atmospheric Turbulence During GATE, J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 1739–1746, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<1739:AHFMOT>2.0.CO;2, 1976a. a
Merceret, F. J.: Measuring Atmospheric Turbulence with Airborne Hot-Film Anemometers, J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim., 15, 482–490, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1976)015<0482:MATWAH>2.0.CO;2, 1976b. a
NASA Airborne Science Program: Twin Otter - CIRPAS - NPS, https://airbornescience.nasa.gov/aircraft/Twin_Otter_-_CIRPAS_-_NPS, last access: 25 April 2024. a
Nicholls, S.: The dynamics of stratocumulus: Aircraft observations and comparisons with a mixed layer model, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 110, 783–820, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711046603, 1984. a
Nicholls, S. and Leighton, J.: An observational study of the structure of stratiform cloud sheets: Part I. Structure, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 112, 431–460, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711247209, 1986. a
Nowak, J. L., Lothon, M., Lenschow, D. H., and Malinowski, S. P.: The ratio of transverse to longitudinal turbulent velocity statistics for aircraft measurements: software, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11127722, 2024. a
Pedersen, J. G., Ma, Y. F., Grabowski, W. W., and Malinowski, S. P.: Anisotropy of observed and simulated turbulence in marine stratocumulus, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 10, 500–515, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017ms001140, 2018. a, b, c
Pope, S. B.: Turbulent flows, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511840531, ISBN 9780521598866, 2000. a, b, c, d
Rauber, R. M., Stevens, B., Ochs, H. T., Knight, C., Albrecht, B. A., Blyth, A. M., Fairall, C. W., Jensen, J. B., Lasher-Trapp, S. G., Mayol-Bracero, O. L., Vali, G., Anderson, J. R., Baker, B. A., Bandy, A. R., Burnet, E., Brenguier, J.-L., Brewer, W. A., Brown, P. R. A., Chuang, P., Cotton, W. R., Girolamo, L. D., Geerts, B., Gerber, H., Göke, S., Gomes, L., Heikes, B. G., Hudson, H. G., Kollias, P., Lawson, R. P., Krueger, S. K., Lenschow, D. H., Nuijens, L., O'sullivan, D. W., Rilling, R. A., Rogers, D. C., Siebesma, A. P., Snodgrass, E., Stith, J. L., Thornton, D. C., Tucker, S., Twohy, C. H., Zuidema, P., Rauber, R. M., Ochs Iii, H. T., and Di Girolamo, L.: A Supplement to Rain in Shallow Cumulus Over the Ocean: The RICO Campaign, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 88, S12–S18, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-88-12-RAUBER, 2007a. a, b
Rauber, R. M., Stevens, B., Ochs, H. T., Knight, C., Albrecht, B. A., Blythe, A. M., Fairall, C. W., Jensen, J. B., Lasher-Trapp, S. G., Mayol-Bracero, O. L., Vali, G., Anderson, J. R., Baker, B. A., Bandy, A. R., Brunet, E., Brenguier, J. L., Brewer, W. A., Brown, P. R., Chuang, P., Cotton, W. R., Di Girolamo, L., Geerts, B., Gerber, H., Göke, S., Gomes, L., Heikes, B. G., Hudson, J. G., Kollias, P., Lawson, R. P., Krueger, S. K., Lenschow, D. H., Nuijens, L., O'Sullivan, D. W., Rilling, R. A., Rogers, D. C., Siebesma, A. P., Snodgrass, F., Stith, J. L., Thornton, D. C., Tucker, S., Twohy, C. H., and Zuidema, P.: Rain in Shallow Cumulus Over the Ocean: The RICO Campaign, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 88, 1912–1928, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-88-12-1912, 2007b. a, b, c
Raymond, D. J., Esbensen, S. K., Paulson, C., Gregg, M., Bretherton, C. S., Petersen, W. A., Cifelli, R., Shay, L. K., Ohlmann, C., and Zuidema, P.: EPIC2001 and the Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere System of the Tropical East Pacific, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 85, 1341–1354, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-85-9-1341, 2004. a
Readings, C. J., Haugen, D. A., and Kaimal, J. C.: The 1973 Minnesota Atmospheric Boundary Layer Experiment, Weather, 29, 309–312, https://doi.org/10.1002/J.1477-8696.1974.TB03314.X, 1974. a
Romero, L. and Melville, W. K.: Airborne Observations of Fetch-Limited Waves in the Gulf of Tehuantepec, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 40, 441–465, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JPO4127.1, 2010. a
Saddoughi, S. G. and Veeravalli, S. V.: Local isotropy in turbulent boundary layers at high Reynolds number, J. Fluid Mech., 268, 333–372, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112094001370, 1994. a, b
SAFIRE: The SAFIRE ATR42 offers a big scientific payload, https://www.safire.fr/en/content_page/safire-utilisateurs/latr42-2.html, last access: 25 April 2024. a
Sheih, C. M., Tennekes, H., and Lumley, J. L.: Airborne Hot‐Wire Measurements of the Small‐Scale Structure of Atmospheric Turbulence, Phys. Fluids, 14, 201–215, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1693416, 1971. a
Siebert, H. and Muschinski, A.: Relevance of a tuning-fork effect for temperature measurements with the Gill solent HS ultrasonic anemometer-thermometer, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 18, 1367–1376, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2001)018<1367:ROATFE>2.0.CO;2, 2001. a, b, c
Siebert, H., Franke, H., Lehmann, K., Maser, R., Saw, E. W., Schell, D., Shaw, R. A., and Wendisch, M.: Probing finescale dynamics and microphysics of clouds with helicopter-borne measurements, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 87, 1727–1738, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-87-12-1727, 2006a. a
Siebert, H., Lehmann, K., and Wendisch, M.: Observations of small-scale turbulence and energy dissipation rates in the cloudy boundary layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 1451–1466, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3687.1, 2006b. a, b, c, d
Siebert, H., Szodry, K.-E., Egerer, U., Wehner, B., Henning, S., Chevalier, K., Lückerath, J., Welz, O., Weinhold, K., Lauermann, F., Gottschalk, M., Ehrlich, A., Wendisch, M., Fialho, P., Roberts, G., Allwayin, N., Schum, S., Shaw, R. A., Mazzoleni, C., Mazzoleni, L., Nowak, J. L., Malinowski, S. P., Karpinska, K., Kumala, W., Czyzewska, D., Luke, E. P., Kollias, P., Wood, R., and Mellado, J. P.: Observations of Aerosol, Cloud, Turbulence, and Radiation Properties at the Top of the Marine Boundary Layer over the Eastern North Atlantic Ocean: The ACORES Campaign, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 102, E123–E147, https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-19-0191.1, 2021. a
Sreenivasan, K. R.: On the universality of the Kolmogorov constant, Phys. Fluids, 7, 2778–2784, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.868656, 1995. a
Stevens, B., Lenschow, D. H., Vali, G., Gerber, H., Bandy, A., Blomquist, B., Brenguier, J. L., Bretherton, C. S., Burnet, F., Campos, T., Chai, S., Faloona, I., Friesen, D., Haimov, S., Laursen, K., Lilly, D. K., Loehrer, S. M., Malinowski, S. P., Morley, B., Petters, M. D., Rogers, D. C., Russell, L., Savic-Jovcic, V., Snider, J. R., Straub, D., Szumowski, M. J., Takagi, H., Thornton, D. C., Tschudi, M., Twohy, C., Wetzel, M., and Van Zanten, M. C.: Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine Stratocumulus–DYCOMS-II, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 84, 579–594, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-84-5-579, 2003. a
Stevens, B., Bony, S., Farrell, D., Ament, F., Blyth, A., Fairall, C., Karstensen, J., Quinn, P. K., Speich, S., Acquistapace, C., Aemisegger, F., Albright, A. L., Bellenger, H., Bodenschatz, E., Caesar, K.-A., Chewitt-Lucas, R., de Boer, G., Delanoë, J., Denby, L., Ewald, F., Fildier, B., Forde, M., George, G., Gross, S., Hagen, M., Hausold, A., Heywood, K. J., Hirsch, L., Jacob, M., Jansen, F., Kinne, S., Klocke, D., Kölling, T., Konow, H., Lothon, M., Mohr, W., Naumann, A. K., Nuijens, L., Olivier, L., Pincus, R., Pöhlker, M., Reverdin, G., Roberts, G., Schnitt, S., Schulz, H., Siebesma, A. P., Stephan, C. C., Sullivan, P., Touzé-Peiffer, L., Vial, J., Vogel, R., Zuidema, P., Alexander, N., Alves, L., Arixi, S., Asmath, H., Bagheri, G., Baier, K., Bailey, A., Baranowski, D., Baron, A., Barrau, S., Barrett, P. A., Batier, F., Behrendt, A., Bendinger, A., Beucher, F., Bigorre, S., Blades, E., Blossey, P., Bock, O., Böing, S., Bosser, P., Bourras, D., Bouruet-Aubertot, P., Bower, K., Branellec, P., Branger, H., Brennek, M., Brewer, A., Brilouet , P.-E., Brügmann, B., Buehler, S. A., Burke, E., Burton, R., Calmer, R., Canonici, J.-C., Carton, X., Cato Jr., G., Charles, J. A., Chazette, P., Chen, Y., Chilinski, M. T., Choularton, T., Chuang, P., Clarke, S., Coe, H., Cornet, C., Coutris, P., Couvreux, F., Crewell, S., Cronin, T., Cui, Z., Cuypers, Y., Daley, A., Damerell, G. M., Dauhut, T., Deneke, H., Desbios, J.-P., Dörner, S., Donner, S., Douet, V., Drushka, K., Dütsch, M., Ehrlich, A., Emanuel, K., Emmanouilidis, A., Etienne, J.-C., Etienne-Leblanc, S., Faure, G., Feingold, G., Ferrero, L., Fix, A., Flamant, C., Flatau, P. J., Foltz, G. R., Forster, L., Furtuna, I., Gadian, A., Galewsky, J., Gallagher, M., Gallimore, P., Gaston, C., Gentemann, C., Geyskens, N., Giez, A., Gollop, J., Gouirand, I., Gourbeyre, C., de Graaf, D., de Groot, G. E., Grosz, R., Güttler, J., Gutleben, M., Hall, K., Harris, G., Helfer, K. C., Henze, D., Herbert, C., Holanda, B., Ibanez-Landeta, A., Intrieri, J., Iyer, S., Julien, F., Kalesse, H., Kazil, J., Kellman, A., Kidane, A. T., Kirchner, U., Klingebiel, M., Körner, M., Kremper, L. A., Kretzschmar, J., Krüger, O., Kumala, W., Kurz, A., L'Hégaret, P., Labaste, M., Lachlan-Cope, T., Laing, A., Landschützer, P., Lang, T., Lange, D., Lange, I., Laplace, C., Lavik, G., Laxenaire, R., Le Bihan, C., Leandro, M., Lefevre, N., Lena, M., Lenschow, D., Li, Q., Lloyd, G., Los, S., Losi, N., Lovell, O., Luneau, C., Makuch, P., Malinowski, S., Manta, G., Marinou, E., Marsden, N., Masson, S., Maury, N., Mayer, B., Mayers-Als, M., Mazel, C., McGeary, W., McWilliams, J. C., Mech, M., Mehlmann, M., Meroni, A. N., Mieslinger, T., Minikin, A., Minnett, P., Möller, G., Morfa Avalos, Y., Muller, C., Musat, I., Napoli, A., Neuberger, A., Noisel, C., Noone, D., Nordsiek, F., Nowak, J. L., Oswald, L., Parker, D. J., Peck, C., Person, R., Philippi, M., Plueddemann, A., Pöhlker, C., Pörtge, V., Pöschl, U., Pologne, L., Posyniak, M., Prange, M., Quiñones Meléndez, E., Radtke, J., Ramage, K., Reimann, J., Renault, L., Reus, K., Reyes, A., Ribbe, J., Ringel, M., Ritschel, M., Rocha, C. B., Rochetin, N., Röttenbacher, J., Rollo, C., Royer, H., Sadoulet, P., Saffin, L., Sandiford, S., Sandu, I., Schäfer, M., Schemann, V., Schirmacher, I., Schlenczek, O., Schmidt, J., Schröder, M., Schwarzenboeck, A., Sealy, A., Senff, C. J., Serikov, I., Shohan, S., Siddle, E., Smirnov, A., Späth, F., Spooner, B., Stolla, M. K., Szkółka, W., de Szoeke, S. P., Tarot, S., Tetoni, E., Thompson, E., Thomson, J., Tomassini, L., Totems, J., Ubele, A. A., Villiger, L., von Arx, J., Wagner, T., Walther, A., Webber, B., Wendisch, M., Whitehall, S., Wiltshire, A., Wing, A. A., Wirth, M., Wiskandt, J., Wolf, K., Worbes, L., Wright, E., Wulfmeyer, V., Young, S., Zhang, C., Zhang, D., Ziemen, F., Zinner, T., and Zöger, M.: EUREC4A, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 4067–4119, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-4067-2021, 2021. a
Stith, J. and Rogers, D. C.: Instrument development and education in airborne science, in: 13th Symposium on Education, 84th AMS Annual Meeting, Seattle, 10–13 January 2004, https://ams.confex.com/ams/84Annual/techprogram/paper_66280.htm (last access: 25 April 2024), 2004. a
Stull, R. B.: An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3027-8, ISBN 978-90-277-2769-5, 1988. a
Taylor, G. I.: The Spectrum of Turbulence, P. Roy. Soc. A-Math. Phy., 1164, 476–490, 1938. a
Tjernström, M. and Rogers, D. P.: Turbulence structure in decoupled marine stratocumulus: A case study from the ASTEX field experiment, J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 598–619, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1996)053<0598:TSIDMS>2.0.CO;2, 1996. a
UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory: NSF/NCAR Hercules C130 Aircraft, UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory, https://doi.org/10.5065/D6WM1BG0, 1994. a, b
UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory: NCAR/NSF C-130 Navigation, State Parameter, and Microphysics HRT Data - 25 Hz, Version 1.0, UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory [data set], https://doi.org/10.5065/D64J0CDM, 2011a. a, b
UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory: NCAR/NSF C-130 Navigation, State Parameter, and Microphysics HRT (25 sps) Data, Version 1.0, UCAR/NCAR - Earth Observing Laboratory [data set], https://doi.org/10.5065/D69K48JK, 2011b. a, b
Wacławczyk, M., Gozingan, A. S., Nzotungishaka, J., Mohammadi, M., and Malinowski, S. P.: Comparison of Different Techniques to Calculate Properties of Atmospheric Turbulence from Low-Resolution Data, Atmosphere, 11, 199, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11020199, 2020. a, b
Wacławczyk, M., Nowak, J. L., Siebert, H., and Malinowski, S. P.: Detecting Nonequilibrium States in Atmospheric Turbulence, J. Atmos. Sci., 79, 2757–2772, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-22-0028.1, 2022. a
Welch, P. D.: The Use of Fast Fourier Transform for the Estimation of Power Spectra: A Method Based on Time Averaging Over Short, Modified Periodograms, IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics, 15, 70–73, https://doi.org/10.1109/TAU.1967.1161901, 1967. a
Wendisch, M. and Brenguier, J. L.: Airborne Measurements for Environmental Research, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH and Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany, https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527653218, ISBN 9783527653218, 2013. a
Wood, R.: Stratocumulus Clouds, Mon. Weather Rev., 140, 2373–2423, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00121.1, 2012. a
Wood, R., Mechoso, C. R., Bretherton, C. S., Weller, R. A., Huebert, B., Straneo, F., Albrecht, B. A., Coe, H., Allen, G., Vaughan, G., Daum, P., Fairall, C., Chand, D., Gallardo Klenner, L., Garreaud, R., Grados, C., Covert, D. S., Bates, T. S., Krejci, R., Russell, L. M., de Szoeke, S., Brewer, A., Yuter, S. E., Springston, S. R., Chaigneau, A., Toniazzo, T., Minnis, P., Palikonda, R., Abel, S. J., Brown, W. O. J., Williams, S., Fochesatto, J., Brioude, J., and Bower, K. N.: The VAMOS Ocean-Cloud-Atmosphere-Land Study Regional Experiment (VOCALS-REx): goals, platforms, and field operations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 627–654, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-627-2011, 2011. a
Zheng, X., Albrecht, B., Jonsson, H. H., Khelif, D., Feingold, G., Minnis, P., Ayers, K., Chuang, P., Donaher, S., Rossiter, D., Ghate, V., Ruiz-Plancarte, J., and Sun-Mack, S.: Observations of the boundary layer, cloud, and aerosol variability in the southeast Pacific near-coastal marine stratocumulus during VOCALS-REx, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 9943–9959, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-9943-2011, 2011. a
Short summary
According to classical theory, the ratio of turbulence statistics corresponding to transverse and longitudinal wind velocity components equals 4/3 in the inertial range of scales. We analyse a large number of measurements obtained with three research aircraft during four field experiments in different locations and show that the observed ratios are almost always significantly smaller. We discuss potential reasons for this disagreement, but the actual explanation remains to be determined.
According to classical theory, the ratio of turbulence statistics corresponding to transverse...
