Articles | Volume 14, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-7199-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-7199-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
17 Nov 2021
Research article |
| 17 Nov 2021
| 17 Nov 2021
Four-dimensional mesospheric and lower thermospheric wind fields using Gaussian process regression on multistatic specular meteor radar observations
Haystack Observatory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Westford, MA 01886, USA
Jorge L. Chau
Leibniz Institute of Atmospheric Physics, University of Rostock, 18225 Kühlungsborn, Germany
Philip J. Erickson
Haystack Observatory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Westford, MA 01886, USA
Juha P. Vierinen
Department of Physics and Technology, UiT Arctic University of Norway, 9010 Tromsø, Norway
J. Miguel Urco
Leibniz Institute of Atmospheric Physics, University of Rostock, 18225 Kühlungsborn, Germany
Matthias Clahsen
Leibniz Institute of Atmospheric Physics, University of Rostock, 18225 Kühlungsborn, Germany
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Christoph Jacobi, Ales Kuchar, Manfred Ern, Toralf Renkwitz, Ralph Latteck, and Jorge L. Chau
Adv. Radio Sci., 24, 15–28, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-24-15-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-24-15-2026, 2026
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Analyses of more than four decades (1979–2024) of mean horizontal winds in the mesopause region at about 90 km altitude show long-term trends and an influence of the 11-year solar cycle. After the 1990s, both linear trends and the solar cycle effect change and strongly weaken, indicating a change in dynamics or solar forcing. Gravity wave proxies also show a solar cycle effect, which decreases after the 1990s.
Devin Huyghebaert, Juha Vierinen, Björn Gustavsson, Ralph Latteck, Toralf Renkwitz, Marius Zecha, Claudia C. Stephan, J. Federico Conte, Daniel Kastinen, Johan Kero, and Jorge L. Chau
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 19, 4277–4292, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-4277-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-4277-2026, 2026
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The phenomena of meteors occurs at altitudes of 60–120 km and can be used to measure the neutral atmosphere. We use a large high power radar system in Norway (Middle Atmosphere Alomar Radar System (MAARSY)) to measure the meteors and determine changes to the atmospheric density between the years of 2016–2023 at altitudes of 85–115 km. The same time period between years are compared, minimizing changes to the measurements due to factors other than the atmosphere.
Juha Vierinen, Dabrowka Knach, Jorge Luis Chau, Gerd Baumgarten, Devin Huyghebaert, Matthias Clahsen, Nico Pfeffer, Toralf Renkwitz, Robin Wing, Kenneth Obenberger, Björn Gustavsson, and Daniel Kastinen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2857, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2857, 2026
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We observed the re-entry of a Falcon 9 rocket upper stage over Europe using a network of cameras and radars normally used to study meteors. The measurements showed how hot ionized gas formed around the debris during hypervelocity entry, producing strong radio echoes high in the atmosphere. As the number of satellites and rocket launches increases, these observations can help improve monitoring of space waste re-entering the atmosphere and its possible environmental effects.
Etienne Gavazzi, Andres Spicher, Björn Gustavsson, Juha Vierinen, James Clemmons, Robert Pfaff, and Douglas Rowland
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2126, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-2126, 2026
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Auroras are caused by energetic electrons entering the upper atmosphere. For the smallest and most dynamic auroras, scientists think electrons are accelerated by waves (called Alfvén waves) thousands of kilometers above Earth. In this paper, we analyse data from a rocket that flew through an aurora, applying existing and new techniques to estimate where the acceleration took place. Our results match theory, and we show how they can be used to study conditions in the near-Earth space environment.
Theresa Rexer, Björn Gustavsson, Juha Vierinen, Andres Spicher, Devin Ray Huyghebaert, Andreas Kvammen, Robert Gillies, and Asti Bhatt
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 15, 127–139, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-15-127-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-15-127-2026, 2026
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We present a second-level calibration method for electron density measurements from multi-beam incoherent scatter radars. It is based on the well-known Flat field correction method used in imaging and photography. The method improves data quality and useability as it accounts for unaccounted and unpredictable variations in the radar system. This is valuable for studies where inter-beam calibration is important such as studies of polar cap patches, plasma irregularities and turbulence.
Alex Timothy Chartier, Ryan Poffenbarger, Rafael Mesquita, Diego Janches, Jorge Chau, Toralf Renkwitz, Ralph Latteck, and William Bristow
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-1634, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-1634, 2026
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We created a new long-term record of upper atmosphere winds using data from a global network of radars spanning more than 30 years. Because these measurements do not directly show altitude, we developed a method to estimate where the signals come from and tested it against other observations and models. The results show good agreement, meaning these data can now be used with greater confidence to study atmospheric motion and its effects on communication and space systems.
Toralf Renkwitz, Matthias Clahsen, and Ralph Latteck
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 19, 1825–1835, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1825-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-1825-2026, 2026
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We describe the use of a nearby drifting stratospheric balloon to calibrate three different radar systems. While for radars in the VHF range different calibration options exist, it is much more complicate to do this in the lower HF range. The main complication is the required distance and size of the target, which is especially challenging for vertical pointing radars. We also present the validation of proper phase calibration and the general radiation pattern.
Kian Sartipzadeh, Andreas Kvammen, Björn Gustavsson, Njål Gulbrandsen, Magnar G. Johnsen, Devin Huyghebaert, and Juha Vierinen
Ann. Geophys., 44, 85–107, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-44-85-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-44-85-2026, 2026
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Knowledge of the charged environment in the upper atmosphere is essential for understanding space weather effects on satellites and radio communication. This environment is difficult to estimate at high latitudes, where aurora cause strong variability. We developed an artificial intelligence model to estimate this environment continuously. Our results show that the model provides reliable estimates even during auroral activity, improving monitoring of the polar upper atmosphere.
Daniel J. Emmons, Cornelius Csar Jude H. Salinas, Dong L. Wu, Nimalan Swarnalingam, Eugene V. Dao, Jorge L. Chau, Yosuke Yamazaki, Kyle E. Fitch, and Victoriya V. Forsythe
Ann. Geophys., 44, 17–34, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-44-17-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-44-17-2026, 2026
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The E-region of the Earth’s ionosphere plays an important role in atmospheric energy balance and High Frequency radio propagation. In this paper, we compare predictions from two recently developed ionospheric models to observations by ionospheric sounders (ionosondes). Overall, the models show reasonable agreement with the observations. However, there are several areas for improvement in the models as well as questions about the accuracy of the automatically processed ionosonde dataset.
Sevag Derghazarian, Larisa Goncharenko, Mateo Cardona Serrano, Shun-Rong Zhang, Philip J. Erickson, Anthea J. Coster, Dupinder Singh, and William Rideout
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-5389, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-5389, 2025
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This paper presents large scale changes to the ionosphere that were observed over a large portion of the continental US from 200 – 450 km altitude during the April 2024 solar eclipse. We observed a decrease in electron density of 50 %, a drop in electron and ion temperatures of 40 % and 20 % respectively. Unique features included lower densities and temperatures north of the eclipse path as compared to the south, and ion temperature decrease along a narrow region parallel to the eclipse path.
J. Federico Conte, Jorge L. Chau, Toralf Renkwitz, Ralph Latteck, Masaki Tsutsumi, Christoph Jacobi, Njål Gulbrandsen, and Satonori Nozawa
Ann. Geophys., 43, 603–619, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-603-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-603-2025, 2025
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Analysis of 10 years of continuous measurements provided MMARIA/SIMONe Norway and MMARIA/SIMONe Germany reveals that the divergent and vortical motions in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere exchange the dominant role depending on the height and the time of the year. At summer mesopause altitudes over middle latitudes, the horizontal divergence and the relative vorticity contribute approximately the same, indicating an energetic balance between mesoscale divergent and vortical motions.
Spencer Mark Hatch, Ilkka Virtanen, Karl Magnus Laundal, Habtamu Wubie Tesfaw, Juha Vierinen, Devin Ray Huyghebaert, Andres Spicher, and Jens Christian Hessen
Ann. Geophys., 43, 633–649, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-633-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-633-2025, 2025
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This study addresses the design of next-generation incoherent scatter radar experiments used to study the ionosphere, particularly with systems that have multiple sites. We have developed a method to estimate uncertainties of measurements of plasma density, temperature, and ion drift. Our method is open-source, and helps to optimize radar configurations and assess the effectiveness of an experiment. This method ultimately serves to enhance our understanding of Earth's space environment.
Christoph Jacobi, Khalil Karami, Ales Kuchar, Manfred Ern, Toralf Renkwitz, Ralph Latteck, and Jorge L. Chau
Adv. Radio Sci., 23, 21–31, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-21-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-21-2025, 2025
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Half-hourly mean winds have been obtained using ground-based low-frequency and very high frequency radio observations of the mesopause region at Collm, Germany, since 1984. Long-term changes of wind variances, which are proxies for short-period atmospheric gravity waves, have been analysed. Gravity wave amplitudes increase with time in winter, but mainly decrease in summer. The trends are consistent with mean wind changes according to wave theory.
Claire C. Trop, James LaBelle, Philip J. Erickson, Shun-Rong Zhang, David McGaw, and Terrence Kovacs
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 1909–1925, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-1909-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-1909-2025, 2025
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Traveling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) are manifestations of atmospheric waves that are significant for the transfer of energy and momentum between atmospheric layers and regions. This work demonstrates that velocities and directions of TIDs can be measured by monitoring the tiny shift in frequency of AM radio signals when they reflect from a moving ionosphere and that this method can be scaled to use large numbers of radio receivers and transmitters to monitor TIDs on a continental scale.
Devin Huyghebaert, Björn Gustavsson, Juha Vierinen, Andreas Kvammen, Matthew Zettergren, John Swoboda, Ilkka Virtanen, Spencer M. Hatch, and Karl M. Laundal
Ann. Geophys., 43, 99–113, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-99-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-43-99-2025, 2025
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The EISCAT_3D radar is a new ionospheric radar under construction in the Fennoscandia region. The radar will make measurements of plasma characteristics at altitudes above approximately 60 km. The capability of the system to make these measurements at spatial scales of less than 100 m using multiple digitised signals from each of the radar antenna panels is highlighted. There are many ionospheric small-scale processes that will be further resolved using the techniques discussed here.
Jennifer Hartisch, Jorge L. Chau, Ralph Latteck, Toralf Renkwitz, and Marius Zecha
Ann. Geophys., 42, 29–43, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-42-29-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-42-29-2024, 2024
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Scientists are studying the mesosphere and lower thermosphere using radar in northern Norway. They found peculiar events with strong upward and downward air movements, happening frequently (up to 2.5 % per month) from 2015 to 2021. Over 700 such events were noted, lasting around 20 min and expanding the studied layer. A total of 17 % of these events had extreme vertical speeds, showing their unique nature.
Juliana Jaen, Toralf Renkwitz, Huixin Liu, Christoph Jacobi, Robin Wing, Aleš Kuchař, Masaki Tsutsumi, Njål Gulbrandsen, and Jorge L. Chau
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 14871–14887, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14871-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-14871-2023, 2023
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Investigation of winds is important to understand atmospheric dynamics. In the summer mesosphere and lower thermosphere, there are three main wind flows: the mesospheric westward, the mesopause southward (equatorward), and the lower-thermospheric eastward wind. Combining almost 2 decades of measurements from different radars, we study the trend, their interannual oscillations, and the effects of the geomagnetic activity over these wind maxima.
Johann Stamm, Juha Vierinen, Björn Gustavsson, and Andres Spicher
Ann. Geophys., 41, 55–67, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-55-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-41-55-2023, 2023
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The study of some ionospheric events benefit from the knowledge of how the physics varies over a volume and over time. Examples are studies of aurora or energy deposition. With EISCAT3D, measurements of ion velocity vectors in a volume will be possible for the first time. We present a technique that uses a set of such measurements to estimate electric field and neutral wind. The technique relies on adding restrictions to the estimates. We successfully consider restrictions based on physics.
Knut Ola Dølven, Juha Vierinen, Roberto Grilli, Jack Triest, and Bénédicte Ferré
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 11, 293–306, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-293-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-293-2022, 2022
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Sensors capable of measuring rapid fluctuations are important to improve our understanding of environmental processes. Many sensors are unable to do this, due to their reliance on the transfer of the measured property, for instance a gas, across a semi-permeable barrier. We have developed a mathematical tool which enables the retrieval of fast-response signals from sensors with this type of sensor design.
Carsten Baumann, Antti Kero, Shikha Raizada, Markus Rapp, Michael P. Sulzer, Pekka T. Verronen, and Juha Vierinen
Ann. Geophys., 40, 519–530, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-519-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-519-2022, 2022
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The Arecibo radar was used to probe free electrons of the ionized atmosphere between 70 and 100 km altitude. This is also the altitude region were meteors evaporate and form secondary particulate matter, the so-called meteor smoke particles (MSPs). Free electrons attach to these MSPs when the sun is below the horizon and cause a drop in the number of free electrons, which are the subject of these measurements. We also identified a different number of free electrons during sunset and sunrise.
Kristina Collins, Steve Cerwin, Philip Erickson, Dev Joshi, Nathaniel Frissell, and Joe Huba
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-327, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2022-327, 2022
Preprint archived
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Radio measurements of time standard stations can be used to measure changes in the ionosphere's height, but not the height itself. In this paper, we show that we can estimate ionospheric height using data from amateur radio stations along with other systems and simulations, that multiple signal paths can be found in this data, and that precisely controlling the receiver frequency is important for this approach to work. This work will help us analyze radio data collected by citizen scientists.
Sumanta Sarkhel, Gunter Stober, Jorge L. Chau, Steven M. Smith, Christoph Jacobi, Subarna Mondal, Martin G. Mlynczak, and James M. Russell III
Ann. Geophys., 40, 179–190, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-179-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-179-2022, 2022
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A rare gravity wave event was observed on the night of 25 April 2017 over northern Germany. An all-sky airglow imager recorded an upward-propagating wave at different altitudes in mesosphere with a prominent wave front above 91 km and faintly observed below. Based on wind and satellite-borne temperature profiles close to the event location, we have found the presence of a leaky thermal duct layer in 85–91 km. The appearance of this duct layer caused the wave amplitudes to diminish below 91 km.
Derek McKay, Juha Vierinen, Antti Kero, and Noora Partamies
Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst., 11, 25–35, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-25-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-11-25-2022, 2022
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When radio waves from our galaxy enter the Earth's atmosphere, they are absorbed by electrons in the upper atmosphere. It was thought that by measuring the amount of absorption, it would allow the height of these electrons in the atmosphere to be determined. If so, this would have significance for future instrument design. However, this paper demonstrates that it is not possible to do this, but it does explain how multiple-frequency measurements can nevertheless be useful.
Juliana Jaen, Toralf Renkwitz, Jorge L. Chau, Maosheng He, Peter Hoffmann, Yosuke Yamazaki, Christoph Jacobi, Masaki Tsutsumi, Vivien Matthias, and Chris Hall
Ann. Geophys., 40, 23–35, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-23-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-23-2022, 2022
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To study long-term trends in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (70–100 km), we established two summer length definitions and analyzed the variability over the years (2004–2020). After the analysis, we found significant trends in the summer beginning of one definition. Furthermore, we were able to extend one of the time series up to 31 years and obtained evidence of non-uniform trends and periodicities similar to those known for the quasi-biennial oscillation and El Niño–Southern Oscillation.
Johann Stamm, Juha Vierinen, and Björn Gustavsson
Ann. Geophys., 39, 961–974, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-961-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-39-961-2021, 2021
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Measurements of the electric field and neutral wind in the ionosphere are important for understanding energy flows or electric currents. With incoherent scatter radars (ISRs), we can measure the velocity of the ions, which depends on both the electrical field and the neutral wind. In this paper, we investigate methods to use ISR data to find reasonable values for both parameters. We find that electric field can be well measured down to 125 km height and neutral wind below this height.
Fabio Vargas, Jorge L. Chau, Harikrishnan Charuvil Asokan, and Michael Gerding
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 13631–13654, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13631-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13631-2021, 2021
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We study large- and small-scale gravity wave cases observed in both airglow imagery and meteor radar data obtained during the SIMONe campaign carried out in early November 2018. We calculate the intrinsic features of several waves and estimate their impact in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere region via transferring energy and momentum to the atmosphere. We also associate cases of large-scale waves with secondary wave generation in the stratosphere.
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Short summary
We introduce a new way of estimating winds in the upper atmosphere (about 80 to 100 km in altitude) from the observed Doppler shift of meteor trails using a statistical method called Gaussian process regression. Wind estimates and, critically, the uncertainty of those estimates can be evaluated smoothly (i.e., not gridded) in space and time. The effective resolution is set by provided parameters, which are limited in practice by the number density of the observed meteors.
We introduce a new way of estimating winds in the upper atmosphere (about 80 to 100 km in...
