Articles | Volume 18, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-509-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-509-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
28 Jan 2025
Research article |
| 28 Jan 2025
| 28 Jan 2025
Development of a Peltier-based chilled-mirror hygrometer, SKYDEW, for tropospheric and lower-stratospheric water vapor measurements
Takuji Sugidachi
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Meisei Electric Co., Ltd., 2223 Naganumamachi, Isesaki-shi, Gunma, 372-8585, Japan
Masatomo Fujiwara
Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Kita 10 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 060-0810, Japan
Kensaku Shimizu
Meisei Electric Co., Ltd., 2223 Naganumamachi, Isesaki-shi, Gunma, 372-8585, Japan
Shin-Ya Ogino
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0001, Japan
Junko Suzuki
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0001, Japan
Ruud J. Dirksen
GRUAN Lead Centre, Meteorologisches Observatorium Lindenberg, Deutscher Wetterdienst, Am Observatorium 12, 15848 Tauche, Germany
Related authors
Shunsuke Hoshino, Takuji Sugidachi, Kensaku Shimizu, Eriko Kobayashi, Masatomo Fujiwara, and Masami Iwabuchi
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 5917–5948, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5917-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5917-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
GRUAN data products (GDPs) from Meisei iMS-100 and Vaisala RS92 were compared with 59 dual sounding data. For daytime observations, the iMS-100 temperature is around 0.5 K lower than RS92-GDP in the stratosphere, but for nighttime observations, the difference is around −0.1 K, and data are mostly in agreement. For relative humidity (RH), iMS-100 is around 1–2 % RH higher in the troposphere and 1 % RH smaller in the stratosphere than RS92, but both GDPs are in agreement for most of the profile.
Yugo Kanaya, Roberto Sommariva, Alfonso Saiz-Lopez, Andrea Mazzeo, Theodore K. Koenig, Kaori Kawana, James E. Johnson, Aurélie Colomb, Pierre Tulet, Suzie Molloy, Ian E. Galbally, Rainer Volkamer, Anoop Mahajan, John W. Halfacre, Paul B. Shepson, Julia Schmale, Hélène Angot, Byron Blomquist, Matthew D. Shupe, Detlev Helmig, Junsu Gil, Meehye Lee, Sean C. Coburn, Ivan Ortega, Gao Chen, James Lee, Kenneth C. Aikin, David D. Parrish, John S. Holloway, Thomas B. Ryerson, Ilana B. Pollack, Eric J. Williams, Brian M. Lerner, Andrew J. Weinheimer, Teresa Campos, Frank M. Flocke, J. Ryan Spackman, Ilann Bourgeois, Jeff Peischl, Chelsea R. Thompson, Ralf M. Staebler, Amir A. Aliabadi, Wanmin Gong, Roeland Van Malderen, Anne M. Thompson, Ryan M. Stauffer, Debra E. Kollonige, Juan Carlos Gómez Martin, Masatomo Fujiwara, Katie Read, Matthew Rowlinson, Keiichi Sato, Junichi Kurokawa, Yoko Iwamoto, Fumikazu Taketani, Hisahiro Takashima, Mónica Navarro-Comas, Marios Panagi, and Martin G. Schultz
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 4901–4932, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-4901-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-4901-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The first comprehensive dataset of tropospheric ozone over oceans/polar regions is presented, including 77 ship/buoy and 48 aircraft campaign observations (1977–2022, 0–5000 m altitude), supplemented by ozonesonde and surface data. Air masses isolated from land for 72+ hours are systematically selected as essentially oceanic. Among the 11 global regions, they show daytime decreases of 11–16 % in the tropics, while near-zero depletions are rare, unlike in the Arctic, implying different mechanisms.
Masatomo Fujiwara, Bomin Sun, Anthony Reale, Domenico Cimini, Salvatore Larosa, Lori Borg, Christoph von Rohden, Michael Sommer, Ruud Dirksen, Marion Maturilli, Holger Vömel, Rigel Kivi, Bruce Ingleby, Ryan J. Kramer, Belay Demoz, Fabio Madonna, Fabien Carminati, Owen Lewis, Brett Candy, Christopher Thomas, David Edwards, Noersomadi, Kensaku Shimizu, and Peter Thorne
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 2919–2955, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2919-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2919-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We assess and illustrate the benefits of high-altitude attainment of balloon-borne radiosonde soundings up to and beyond 10 hPa level from various aspects. We show that the extra costs and technical challenges involved in consistent attainment of high ascents are more than outweighed by the benefits for a broad variety of real-time and delayed-mode applications. Consistent attainment of high ascents should therefore be pursued across the balloon observational network.
Simone Brunamonti, Harald Saathoff, Albert Hertzog, Glenn Diskin, Masatomo Fujiwara, Karen Rosenlof, Ottmar Möhler, Béla Tuzson, Lukas Emmenegger, Nadir Amarouche, Georges Durry, Fabien Frérot, Jean-Christophe Samake, Claire Cenac, Julio Lopez, Paul Monnier, and Mélanie Ghysels
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1029, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1029, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Water vapor is a strong greenhouse gas and accurate measurements of its concentration in the upper atmosphere (~8–25 km altitude) are crucial for reliable climate predictions. We investigated the performance of four airborne hygrometers, deployed on aircraft or stratospheric balloon platforms and based on different techniques, in a climate simulation chamber. The results demonstrate the high accuracy and reliability of the involved sensors for atmospheric monitoring and research applications.
Masatomo Fujiwara, Patrick Martineau, Jonathon S. Wright, Marta Abalos, Petr Šácha, Yoshio Kawatani, Sean M. Davis, Thomas Birner, and Beatriz M. Monge-Sanz
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 7873–7898, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-7873-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-7873-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A climatology of the major variables and terms of the transformed Eulerian-mean (TEM) momentum and thermodynamic equations from four global atmospheric reanalyses is evaluated. The spread among reanalysis TEM momentum balance terms is around 10 % in Northern Hemisphere winter and up to 50 % in Southern Hemisphere winter. The largest uncertainties in the thermodynamic equation (about 50 %) are in the vertical advection, which does not show a structure consistent with the differences in heating.
Shunsuke Hoshino, Takuji Sugidachi, Kensaku Shimizu, Eriko Kobayashi, Masatomo Fujiwara, and Masami Iwabuchi
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 5917–5948, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5917-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5917-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
GRUAN data products (GDPs) from Meisei iMS-100 and Vaisala RS92 were compared with 59 dual sounding data. For daytime observations, the iMS-100 temperature is around 0.5 K lower than RS92-GDP in the stratosphere, but for nighttime observations, the difference is around −0.1 K, and data are mostly in agreement. For relative humidity (RH), iMS-100 is around 1–2 % RH higher in the troposphere and 1 % RH smaller in the stratosphere than RS92, but both GDPs are in agreement for most of the profile.
Varaha Ravi Kiran, Madineni Venkat Ratnam, Masatomo Fujiwara, Herman Russchenberg, Frank G. Wienhold, Bomidi Lakshmi Madhavan, Mekalathur Roja Raman, Renju Nandan, Sivan Thankamani Akhil Raj, Alladi Hemanth Kumar, and Saginela Ravindra Babu
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 4709–4734, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4709-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4709-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We proposed and conducted the multi-instrumental BACIS (Balloon-borne Aerosol–Cloud Interaction Studies) field campaigns using balloon-borne in situ measurements and ground-based and space-borne remote sensing instruments. Aerosol-cloud interaction is quantified for liquid clouds by segregating aerosol and cloud information in a balloon profile. Overall, the observational approach proposed here demonstrated its capability for understanding the aerosol–cloud interaction process.
Christoph von Rohden, Michael Sommer, Tatjana Naebert, Vasyl Motuz, and Ruud J. Dirksen
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 383–405, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-383-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-383-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Heating by solar radiation is the dominant error source for daytime temperature measurements by radiosondes. This paper describes a new laboratory setup (SISTER) to characterise this radiation error for pressures and ventilation speeds that are typical for the conditions between the surface and 35 km altitude. This characterisation is the basis for the radiation correction that is applied in the GRUAN data processing for the RS41 radiosonde. The GRUAN data product is compared to that of Vaisala.
Masatomo Fujiwara, Tetsu Sakai, Tomohiro Nagai, Koichi Shiraishi, Yoichi Inai, Sergey Khaykin, Haosen Xi, Takashi Shibata, Masato Shiotani, and Laura L. Pan
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 3073–3090, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-3073-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-3073-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Lidar aerosol particle measurements in Japan during the summer of 2018 were found to detect the eastward extension of the Asian tropopause aerosol layer from the Asian summer monsoon anticyclone in the lower stratosphere. Analysis of various other data indicates that the observed enhanced particle levels are due to eastward-shedding vortices from the anticyclone, originating from pollutants emitted in Asian countries and transported vertically by convection in the Asian summer monsoon region.
Manuel Graf, Philipp Scheidegger, André Kupferschmid, Herbert Looser, Thomas Peter, Ruud Dirksen, Lukas Emmenegger, and Béla Tuzson
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 1365–1378, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1365-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1365-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Water vapor is the most important natural greenhouse gas. The accurate and frequent measurement of its abundance, especially in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS), is technically challenging. We developed and characterized a mid-IR absorption spectrometer for highly accurate water vapor measurements in the UTLS. The instrument is sufficiently small and lightweight (3.9 kg) to be carried by meteorological balloons, which enables frequent and cost-effective soundings.
Teresa Jorge, Simone Brunamonti, Yann Poltera, Frank G. Wienhold, Bei P. Luo, Peter Oelsner, Sreeharsha Hanumanthu, Bhupendra B. Singh, Susanne Körner, Ruud Dirksen, Manish Naja, Suvarna Fadnavis, and Thomas Peter
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 239–268, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-239-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-239-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Balloon-borne frost point hygrometers are crucial for the monitoring of water vapour in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. We found that when traversing a mixed-phase cloud with big supercooled droplets, the intake tube of the instrument collects on its inner surface a high percentage of these droplets. The newly formed ice layer will sublimate at higher levels and contaminate the measurement. The balloon is also a source of contamination, but only at higher levels during the ascent.
Sreeharsha Hanumanthu, Bärbel Vogel, Rolf Müller, Simone Brunamonti, Suvarna Fadnavis, Dan Li, Peter Ölsner, Manish Naja, Bhupendra Bahadur Singh, Kunchala Ravi Kumar, Sunil Sonbawne, Hannu Jauhiainen, Holger Vömel, Beiping Luo, Teresa Jorge, Frank G. Wienhold, Ruud Dirkson, and Thomas Peter
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 14273–14302, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14273-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14273-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
During boreal summer, anthropogenic sources yield the Asian Tropopause Aerosol Layer (ATAL), found in Asia between about 13 and 18 km altitude. Balloon-borne measurements of the ATAL conducted in northern India in 2016 show the strong variability of the ATAL. To explain its observed variability, model simulations are performed to deduce the origin of air masses on the Earth's surface, which is important to develop recommendations for regulations of anthropogenic surface emissions of the ATAL.
Cited articles
Åström, K. J. and Murray, R.: Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers, Princeton University Press, United States, 396 pp., ISBN 0691135762, 2008.
Brewer, A. W.: Evidence for a world circulation provided by the measurements of helium and water vapor distribution in the stratosphere, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 75, 351–363, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49707532603, 1949.
Buck, A. L.: New equations for computing vapor pressure and enhancement factor, J. Appl. Meteorol., 20, 1527–1532, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1981)020<1527:NEFCVP>2.0.CO;2, 1981.
Craig, F. B. and Donald, R. H.: Absorption and Scattering of Light by Small Particles, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, 530 pp., ISBN 393658608X, 1983.
Dirksen, R. J.: Overview of situation regarding R23, in: 12th GRUAN Implementation and Coordination Meeting, virtual meeting, 16–20 November 2020, https://www.gruan.org/gruan/editor/documents/meetings/icm-12/pres/pres_301_Dirksen_R23-Intro.pdf (last access: 3 September 2023), 2020.
Fujiwara, M., Shiotani, M., Hasebe, F., Vömel, H., Oltmans, S. J., Ruppert, P. W., Horinouchi, T., and Tsuda, T.: Performance of the Meteolabor “Snow White” chilled-mirror hygrometer in the tropical troposphere: Comparisons with the Vaisala RS80 A/H-Humicap sensors, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 20, 1534–1542, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<1534:POTMSW>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Fujiwara, M., Sugidachi, T., Arai, T., Shimizu, K., Hayashi, M., Noma, Y., Kawagita, H., Sagara, K., Nakagawa, T., Okumura, S., Inai, Y., Shibata, T., Iwasaki, S., and Shimizu, A.: Development of a cloud particle sensor for radiosonde sounding, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 5911–5931, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-5911-2016, 2016.
Gatz, D. F. and Smith, L.: The standard error of a weighted mean concentration – I: Bootstrapping vs. other methods, Atmos. Environ., 29, 1185–1193, https://doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(94)00210-C, 1995.
Hall, E. G., Jordan, A. F., Hurst, D. F., Oltmans, S. J., Vömel, H., Kühnreich, B., and Ebert, V.: Advancements, measurement uncertainties, and recent comparisons of the NOAA frost point hygrometer, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 4295–4310, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-4295-2016, 2016.
Held, I. M. and Soden, B. J.: Water vapor feedback and global warming, Annu. Rev. Energy Environ., 25, 441–475, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.441, 2000.
Hurst, D. F., Oltmans, S. J., Vömel, H., Rosenlof, K. H., Davis, S. M., Ray, E. A., Hall, E. G., and Jordan, A. F.: Stratospheric water vapor trends over Boulder, Colorado: Analysis of the 30 year Boulder record, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D02306, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015065, 2011.
Hurst, D. F., Fujiwara, M., and Oltmans, S.: Frost point hygrometers, in: Field Measurements for Passive Environmental Remote Sensing – Instrumentation, Intensive Campaigns, and Satellite Applications, 1st edn., Chap. 3, edited by: Nalli, N., Elsevier, Radarweg, the Netherlands, 436 pp., ISBN 9780128239537, 37–55, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-823953-7.00015-0, 2023.
Hyland, R. and Wexler, A.: Formulations for the Thermodynamic Properties of the Saturated Phases of H2O from 173.15 K to 473.15 K, ASHRAE Trans., 89, 500–519, 1983.
Immler, F. J., Dykema, J., Gardiner, T., Whiteman, D. N., Thorne, P. W., and Vömel, H.: Reference Quality Upper-Air Measurements: guidance for developing GRUAN data products, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 3, 1217–1231, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-3-1217-2010, 2010.
Ingleby, B.: An assessment of different radiosonde types 2015/2016, ECMWF Technical Memoranda, 807, p. 77, https://doi.org/10.21957/cf724bi05s, 2017.
JAMSTEC: Years of the Maritime Continent, YMC Data Archive Center [data set], https://www.jamstec.go.jp/ymc/campaigns/IOP_YMC-BSM_2021.html, last access: 19 January 2025.
JCGM/WG 1 (Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology/Working Group 1): Evaluation of measurement data – Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement, 1st edn., Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, 100, 134 pp., https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/2071204/JCGM_100_2008_E.pdf/ (last access: 20 January 2025), 2008.
Jorge, T., Brunamonti, S., Poltera, Y., Wienhold, F. G., Luo, B. P., Oelsner, P., Hanumanthu, S., Singh, B. B., Körner, S., Dirksen, R., Naja, M., Fadnavis, S., and Peter, T.: Understanding balloon-borne frost point hygrometer measurements after contamination by mixed-phase clouds, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 239–268, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-239-2021, 2021.
Kizu, N., Sugidachi, T., Kobayashi, E., Hoshino, S., Shimizu, K., Maeda, R., and Fujiwara, M.: Technical characteristics and GRUAN data processing for the Meisei RS-11G and iMS-100 radiosondes (GRUAN-TD-5), GRUAN Lead Centre, Lindenberg, Germany [data set], https://www.gruan.org/documentation/gruan/td/gruan-td-5 (last access: 20 January 2025), 2018.
Kobayashi, E., Hoshino, S., Iwabuchi, M., Sugidachi, T., Shimizu, K., and Fujiwara, M.: Comparison of the GRUAN data products for Meisei RS-11G and Vaisala RS92-SGP radiosondes at Tateno (36.06° N, 140.13° E), Japan, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 12, 3039–3065, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-12-3039-2019, 2019.
Kräuchi, A., Philipona, R., Romanens, G., Hurst, D. F., Hall, E. G., and Jordan, A. F.: Controlled weather balloon ascents and descents for atmospheric research and climate monitoring, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 929–938, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-929-2016, 2016.
Leblanc, T., McDermid, I. S., and Walsh, T. D.: Ground-based water vapor raman lidar measurements up to the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere for long-term monitoring, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 5, 17–36, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-17-2012, 2012.
Livesey, N. J., Read, W. G., Wagner, P. A., Froidevaux, L., Lambert, A., Manney, G. L., Valle, L. F. M., Pumphrey, H. C., Santee, M. L., Schwartz, M. J., Wang, S., Fuller, R. A., Jarnot, R. F., Knosp, B. W., Martinez, E., and Lay, R. R.: Version 4.2x Level 2 and 3 data quality and description document., Tech. Rep. JPL D-33509 Rev. E, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, 91109-8099, 2020.
Mastenbrook, H. J. and Oltmans, S. J.: Stratospheric Water vapor variability for Washington DC/Boulder, CO: 1964–82, J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 2157–2165, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1983)040<2157:SWVVFW>2.0.CO;2, 1983.
Miloshevich, L., Vömel, H., Whiteman, D., Lesht, B., Schmidlin, F., and Russo, F.: Absolute accuracy of water vapor measurements from six operational radiosonde types launched during AWEX-G and implications for AIRS validation, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D09S10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006083, 2006.
Murphy, D. and Koop, T.: Review of the vapour pressures of ice and supercooled water for atmospheric applications, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131, 1539–1565., https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.04.94, 2005.
Myhre, G., Nilsen, J. S., Gulstad, L., Shine, K. P., Rognerud, B., and Isaksen, I. S. A.: Radiative forcing due to stratospheric water vapour from CH4 oxidation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L01807, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL027472, 2007.
Nash, J., Oakley, T., Vömel, H., and Li, W.: WMO intercomparisons of high quality radiosonde systems, WMO/TD-1580, World Meteorological Organization, https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/50499 (last access: 20 January 2025), 2011.
Oelsner, P. and Tietz, R.: GRUAN Monitor MW41 and the Vaisala RS41 Additional Sensor Interface Rev. 1.4 (2024-04-11), GRUAN Lead Centre, Lindenberg, Germany [code], https://www.gruan.org/documentation/gruan/tn/gruan-tn-8 (last access: 19 January 2025), 2024.
Poltera, Y.: Performance assessment and improved processing of balloon-borne chilled-mirror and thin-film hygrometers, PhD thesis, ETH Zurich, https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/handle/20.500.11850/587231 (last access: 20 January 2025), 2022.
Poltera, Y., Luo, B., and Peter, T.: Chilled mirror hygrometers and their “Golden Points” – A new interpretation and correction method for chilled mirror data, Report of the Thirteenth GCOS Reference Upper Air Network Implementation Coordination Meeting (GRUAN ICM-13), 15–19 November 2021, online, GCOS-242 report, https://www.gruan.org/gruan/editor/documents/gcos/GCOS-242_GRUAN_ICM-13.pdf (last access: 20 January 2025), 2021.
Pruppacher, H. R. and Klett, J. D.: Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation, 2nd edn., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 954 pp., ISBN 0792342119, 1997.
Read, W. G., Stiller, G., Lossow, S., Kiefer, M., Khosrawi, F., Hurst, D., Vömel, H., Rosenlof, K., Dinelli, B. M., Raspollini, P., Nedoluha, G. E., Gille, J. C., Kasai, Y., Eriksson, P., Sioris, C. E., Walker, K. A., Weigel, K., Burrows, J. P., and Rozanov, A.: The SPARC Water Vapor Assessment II: assessment of satellite measurements of upper tropospheric humidity, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 3377–3400, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-3377-2022, 2022.
Sakata, R.: Thermoelectric Energy Conversion – Theory and Applications, Shokabou, 322 pp., ISBN 978-4-7853-6112-9, 2005.
Shoji, Y.: Retrieval of Water Vapor Inhomogeneity Using the Japanese Nationwide GPS Array and its Potential for Prediction of Convective Precipitation, J. Meteor. Soc. Jpn., 91, 43–62, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2013-103, 2013.
Solomon, S., Rosenlof, K., Portmann, R., Daniel, J., Davis, S., Sanford, T., and Plattner, G.-K.: Contributions of stratospheric water vapor to decadal changes in the rate of global warming, Science, 327, 1219–1223, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1182488, 2010.
Sommer, M., von Rohden, C., Simeonov, T., Oelsner, P., Naebert, T., Romanens, G., Jauhiainen, H., Survo, P., and Dirksen, R.: GRUAN characterisation and data processing of the Vaisala RS41 radiosonde, GRUAN Lead Centre, GRUAN Technical Document 8 (GRUAN-TD-8), https://www.gruan.org/gruan/editor/documents/gruan/GRUAN-TD-8_RS41_v1.0.0_20230628_final.pdf (last access: 3 September 2023), 2023.
Sugidachi, T.: Development of a balloon-borne hygrometer for climate monitoring, Master's thesis at Graduate school of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, 138 pp., http://hdl.handle.net/2115/92715 (last access: 30 September 2024), 2011 (in Japanese).
Sugidachi, T.: Studies on the tropospheric and stratospheric water vapor measurements for climate monitoring, PhD, Hokkaido University, Japan, 138 pp., https://doi.org/10.14943/doctoral.k11343, 2014.
Sugidachi, T.: Sounding Data from SKYDEW hygrometer, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13957367, 2024.
Sugidachi, T.: Python codes for describing the SKYDEW profile, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14701212, 2025.
Szakáll, M., Bozoki, Z., Kraemer, M., Spelten, N., Moehler, O., and Schurath, U.: Evaluation of a Photoacoustic Detector for Water Vapor Measurements under Simulated Tropospheric/Lower Stratospheric Conditions, Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 4881–4885, 2001.
Thornberry, T., Gierczak, T., Gao, R. S., Vömel, H., Watts, L. A., Burkholder, J. B., and Fahey, D. W.: Laboratory evaluation of the effect of nitric acid uptake on frost point hygrometer performance, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 289–296, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-289-2011, 2011.
Vömel, H.: Saturation vapor pressure formulations, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Earth Observing Laboratory, Boulder, CO, http://cires1.colorado.edu/~voemel/vp.html (last access: 23 January 2025), 2016.
Vömel, H., Oltmans, S. J., Hofmann, D. J., Deshler, T., and Rost, M.: The Evolution of the Dehydration in the Antarctic Stratospheric Vortex, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 13919–13926, https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD01000, 1995.
Vömel, H., Fujiwara, M., Shiotani, M., Hasebe, F., Oltmans, S. J., and Barnes, J. E.: The Behavior of the Snow White Chilled-Mirror Hygrometer in Extremely Dry Conditions, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 20, 1560–1567, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<1560:TBOTSW>2.0.CO;2, 2003.
Vömel, H., David, D. E., and Smith, K.: Accuracy of tropospheric and stratospheric water vapor measurements by the cryogenic frost point hygrometer: Instrumental details and observations, J. Geophys. Res., 12, D08305, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007224, 2007a.
Vömel, H., Selkirk, H., Miloshevich, L., Valverde-Canossa, J., Valdés, J., Kyrö, E., Kivi, R., Stolz, W., Peng, G., and Diaz, J. A.: Radiation dry bias of the Vaisala RS92 humidity sensor, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 24, 953-963, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH2019.1, 2007b.
Vömel, H., Yushkov, V., Khaykin, S., Korshunov, L., Kyrö, E., and Kivi, R.: Intercomparisons of Stratospheric Water Vapor Sensors: FLASH-B and NOAA/CMDL Frost-Point Hygrometer, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 24, 941–952, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH2007.1, 2007c.
Vömel, H., Naebert, T., Dirksen, R., and Sommer, M.: An update on the uncertainties of water vapor measurements using cryogenic frost point hygrometers, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 3755–3768, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-3755-2016, 2016.
Wendell, J. and Jordan, A.: iMet-1-RSB Radiosonde XDATA Protocol & Daisy Chaining, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2 pp., https://gml.noaa.gov/aftp/user/jordan/iMet-1-RSB%20Radiosonde%20XDATA%20Daisy%20Chaining.pdf (last access: 3 September 2023), 2016.
Whiteman, D. N., Russo, F., Demoz, B., Miloshevich, L. M., Veselovskii, I., Hannon, S., Wang, Z., Vömel, H., Schmidlin, F., Lesht, B., Moore, P. J., Beebe, A. S., Gambacorta, A., and Barnet, C.: Analysis of Raman lidar and radiosonde measurements from the AWEX-G field campaign and its relation to Aqua validation, J. Geophys. Res., 111, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006429, 2006.
WMO (World Meteorological Organization): The GCOS Reference Upper-Air Network (GRUAN) MANUAL (v1.1.0.3), 17 pp., https://www.gruan.org/gruan/editor/documents/gcos/gcos-170.pdf (last access: 3 September 2023), 2013.
WMO (World Meteorological Organization): Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation, WMO-No. 8 (2021/2018 edition), 224 pp., ISBN 978-92-63-10008-5, 2021.
Short summary
A Peltier-based chilled-mirror hygrometer, SKYDEW, has been developed to measure tropospheric and stratospheric water vapor. Continuous accurate measurements of water vapor are essential for climate monitoring. More than 40 soundings with SKYDEW have been conducted since 2011 to evaluate the performance. The result of soundings at tropical and midlatitudes demonstrated that SKYDEW is able to measure up to an altitude of 20–25 km for daytime soundings and above 25 km for nighttime soundings.
A Peltier-based chilled-mirror hygrometer, SKYDEW, has been developed to measure tropospheric...
